Some Non-Jewish Historical Proper Names Mentioned by Name in the Talmud
People (Alexander, Jesus); Places (Alexandria, Spain); Gods (Aphrodite, Mercury); Festivals (Saturnalia); Books (Homer, New Testament)
Based on a draft written in 2012
Wiktionary defines proper name as follows:
“A word or phrase that has noun part of speech and names a specific object, usually capitalized, examples being Martin or New York.”
I have listed some people, places, gods, festivals and books mentioned in the Talmud, and also mentioned in contemporary historical sources. See next to each heading for qualifications for inclusion.
People
Names listed in chronological order. Excluding names mentioned in Tanach. Biographies of #1-16 are taken from the Oxford Dictionary of English (second edition, revised, 2009), with slight changes.
Alexander the Great—Lived 356-323 BCE. King of Macedon 336-323, son of Phillip II. He conquered Persia, Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, Bactria, and the Punjab; in Egypt he founded the city of Alexandria. In the Talmud he is called אלכסנדר מוקדון (Alexander Mokdon), Alexander of Macedon.
Epicurus --Lived 341-270 BCE. Greek philosopher, founder of Epicureanism. His physics is based on Democritus' theory of a materialist universe composed of indestructible atoms moving in a void, unregulated by divine providence. Although not named per se, a heretic in the Talmud is called an epikoros (אפיקורוס), clearly after the Greek philosopher. Surprisingly, the most famous Greek philosophers—Plato and Aristotle—are never mentioned in the Talmud.
Ptolemy—“Ptolemy” was the name of all the Macedonian rulers of Egypt, a dynasty founded by Ptolemy, the close friend and general of Alexander the Great, who took charge of Egypt after the latter's death and declared himself king (Ptolemy I) in 304 BCE. The dynasty ended with the death of Cleopatra in 30 BCE. “Ptolemy” in the Talmud is the name of an Egyptian king who forced seventy Sages to translate the Torah. This translation became known as the Targum Shiv'im (the Septuagint).
Antiochus
Cleopatra—Also known as Cleopatra VII. Lived 69-30 BCE. Queen of Egypt 47-30 BCE, the last Ptolemaic ruler. After a brief liaison with Julius Caesar she formed a political and romantic alliance with Marc Antony. Their ambitions ultimately brought them into conflict with Rome, and she and Antony were defeated at the battle of Actium in 31 BCE. She is reputed to have commited suicide by allowing herself to be bitten by an asp.
Herod the Great—Lived circa 74-4 BCE. Ruled ancient Palestine 37-4 BCE. According to the New Testament, Jesus was born during his reign. Herod the Great is mentioned in the Talmud Bava Basra as the renovator of the Second Beis Hamikdash.
Jesus --The central figure of the Christian religion. In the Talmud there is a figure known as ישו (Yeshu). It is unclear if this “Yeshu” is to be identified with the Christian Jesus. (Judas Iscariot, according to some, is mentioned in Perek Chelek with the nickname “Pinchas”, with Jesus with the nickname “Bilam”. Jesus also possibly “Korach”.) Jesus' students' names are mentioned in uncensored Talmud in Senhedrin where Jesus' hanging is described. A female follower of Jesus, Mary Magdalene, also seems to be mentioned in the Talmud.
Caesar—A title of Roman emperors, especially those from Augustus to Hadrian. “Caesar” is often quoted in the Talmud, especially as having philosophical discussions with Tannaim.
Nero—Lived 37-68 CE. Roman emperor 54-68; full name Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus. Infamous for his cruelty, he wantonly executed leading Romans. His reign witnessed fire that destroyed half of Rome in 64.
Vespasian—Lived 9-79 CE. Roman emperor 69-79 and founder of the Flavian dynasty; Latin name Titus Flavius Vespasianus. He was acclaimed emperor by the legions in Egypt during the civil wars following the death of Nero and gained control of Italy after the defeat of Vitellius. His reign saw the restoration of financial and military order and the initiation of a public building program. In the Talmud Vespasian is said to have attempted to destroy the Second Beis Hamikdash, but then left without completing the job, leaving the task to his son, Titus. Interestingly, the same story is told by Joephus about himself.
Titus--Lived 39-81 CE. Roman emperor 79-81, son of Vespasian; full name Titus Vespasianus Augustus; born Titus Flavius Vespasianus.[1] In 70 he ended a revolt in Judaea with the conquest of Jerusalem. He is Mentioned in the Talmud as the general of the Roman army that destroyed Yerushalyim. He is depicted very negatively.
Trajan—Lived 53-117 CE. Roman emperor 98-117; Latin name Marcus Ulpius Traianus. His reign is noted for the many public works undertaken and for the Dacain wars (101-106), which ended in the annexation of Dacia as a province.
Hadrian—Lived 76-138 CE. Roman emperor 117-138; full name Publius Aelius Hadrianus. The adopted succesor of Trajan, he toured the provinces of the empire and secured the frontiers. In the Talmud he is known as a cruel leader, who presided over the eponymous Hadrianic persecutions.
Tineas Rufus. Called טורנוסרופס in the Talmud (“Turnusrufus”).
Marcus Aurelius --Lived 121-180. Roman emperor 161-180; full name Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus. He was occupied for much of his reign with wars against invading Germanic tribes. His Meditations are evidence of his philosophical interests. It is presumed that Marcus Aurelius is the אנטונינוס (Antoninus) described in the Talmud as meeting with Rebbe (R' Yehuda Hanassi), and having philosophical discussions with him.
Ardeshir/Artavan (friend of Rebbe)—Last emperor of the Parthian Empire.
Papa bar Netzer
Shapur
Ifra Hurmiz
Yazdegerd
Severus (Asvirus)
Places
In alphabetical order. Excluding places in Eretz Yisrael and Babylonia, and places mentioned in Tanach
Tadmur—Greek name Palmyra.
Alexandria—Alexandria in Egypt. Sometimes called אלכסנדרייא של מצרים.
Athens
Rome
Cappadocia—An ancient region of central Asia Minor, between Lake Tuz and the Euphrates River, north of Cicilia. It was an important center of early Christianity[2].
Africa
Asia
Cyprus --Called קפריסין in the Mishnah.
Italy
Antiochia
Spain (Aspamia)
Gods
In alphabetical order. Definitions are from Oxford Dictionary of English (revised 2nd ed., 2009)
Aphrodite—The Greek goddess of beauty, fertility, and sexual love. She is variously described as the daughter of Zeus and Dione, or as being born from the sea. Roman equivalent Venus. In the Talmud Yerushalmi, Rabban Gamliel is described as bathing in a bathhouse containing a statue of Aphrodite. Why this was permissible is discussed in the Yerushalmi there.
Ahriman—The evil spirit in the doctrine of Zoroastrianism, the opponent of Ahura Mazda. In the Talmud, Tractate Sanhedrin he is called אהורמין
Ahura Mazda—The creator god of Zoroastrianism, the force for good and the opponent of Ahriman. Also called Ormazd.
Mercury—The Roman god of eloquence, skill, trading, and thieving, herald and messenger of the gods, who was identified with Hermes. The Talmud calls him מר קוליס (Mar Kulus, from Latin “Mercurus”). The method of worshiping Mercury is described in the Talmud as placing two stones next to each other, and then placing a third stone on top of them.[3]
Festivals
Saturnalia—The ancient Roman festival of Saturn in December, a period of general merrymaking and the predecessor of Christmas. Mentioned in the Talmud Avodah Zarah as a festival of the Romans, aroung which time it is prohibited to do business with them.
Zoroastrian fire festivals. Roman birthday festivals. Christian Sunday (beginning of Tractate Avodah Zarah).
Books
Homer—Lived 8th century BCE. Greek epic poet. He is traditionally held to be the author of the Illiad and the Odyssey, though modern scholarship has revealed the place of Homeric poems in a preliterate oral tradition. In later antiquity Homer was regarded as the greatest poet, and his poems were constantly used as a model and source by others. Homer is mentioned at the end of Mishnah Tractate Yadayim.
New Testament—Called אוון גליון in uncensored Talmud, Tractate Shabbat. It is a play on the Greek euangelion, the Greek name for the New Testament (and source for well-known English words “evangelical”, “evangelize”, etc.).
[1] Josephus took on the surname “Flavius” in honor of his patron, the Flavius family. Josephus is never mentioned in the Talmud, even though it is possible that he was known to the Talmudic rabbis. See the monumental discussion in Tal Ilan’s two volume work on Josephus and the Talmudic traditions.
[2] Oxford Dictionary of English (second edition, revised, 2009).
[3] From the Oxford Dictionary of English (second edition, revised, 2009), entry “Hermes”: “Origin: Probably from Greek herma 'heap of stones': from early times he was represented by a carved stock or stone and was identified with Thoth.” As noted, Mercury was the Roman god identified with the Greek god Hermes.