A Century of US Names, Pt 2, Naming Dames: Female Names with Hebrew Bible, Greco-Roman, and Germanic Roots
Unearthing the roots of American girls' names
Part of a series. The first part of this series focused on boys' names: “A Century of US Names, Pt 1: Male Monikers with Hebrew Bible, Greco-Roman, and Germanic Roots”. The intro is the same as there, with adjustments. With an appendix on the Jewish apocrypha (הספרים החיצונים) in later Jewish literature. This series is a part of a broader research project on names.
When looking up name origins on Google, you'll often find your search results inundated with SEO-driven baby name websites that lack depth and quality. There's no denying the gradual deterioration of Google search results due to the prevalence of SEO-optimization.
A while ago, I came to realize that there is a highly reliable open-access resource for etymology: Wiktionary. This crowd-sourced dictionary is an affiliate project of Wikipedia and, in all honesty, is a remarkable lexicographic tool. One which I make use of on a daily basis.
Though no etymological source can guarantee 100% accuracy, I've chosen to present the most plausible origins of the names.
The names I've explored are the most common names given to newborns from 1923 to 2022, as recorded by the US government's Social Security Administration, under the title "Top Names Over the Last 100 Years". The girls’ names list is a list of names that were given to 62 million girls.
Based on my analysis, there are 32 names from the Hebrew Bible, 43 names with Greco-Roman roots, and 14 names of Germanic origin.
In comparison to popular boys’ names, there are far more girls’ names with Greco-Roman roots than with roots in the Hebrew Bible. Especially taking into account that many of the girls’ names with Hebrew Bible roots are variants of John (Joan, Janice, Janet), Mary (Maria, Marie, Marilyn), or Elizabeth (Lisa, Betty, Isabella). This may be due to the relative paucity of girls’ names in the Hebrew Bible. Scholars point out that around half (!) of women in late Second Temple times had the name Miriam or variants of that name.[1] In general, traditionally, Jewish women were far more likely than men to have names that were drawn from the surrounding Jewish culture.
A few especially interesting girls’ names
Before we delve into the full list of female names, I’d like to discuss a few especially intriguing girls’ names.
There are a few Biblical names that originate from the Pseudepigrapha, not the conventional Hebrew Bible. To give some context, the Pseudepigrapha, referred to as 'Seforim Chitzonim' in rabbinical texts, comprise the Jewish apocrypha. These are essentially 'external books' (Hebrew: הספרים החיצונים), mostly penned by Jews, primarily during the Second Temple era. These texts were not regarded as holy scriptures during the canonization of the Hebrew Bible. Nevertheless, many Christians consider these books to be sacred, and they form part of their Old Testament versions. Toward the conclusion of this discussion, we'll explore the Jewish apocrypha (הספרים החיצונים) as they appear in later Jewish literature. [2]
The girls’ names that appear in the Jewish apocrypha are Shoshana and Judith.
Shoshana: From Σουσάννα (Sousanna), the Greek form of the Hebrew name שׁוֹשַׁנָּה (Shoshannah). This was derived from the Hebrew word שׁוֹשָׁן (shoshan) meaning "lily". It is the name of at least two women in the Bible and, via the Greek Sousanna, it developed into such European and Christian names as Susanna, Susan, Susanne, Susana, Susannah, Suzanne, Susie, Suzie.[3] Susanna is a narrative included in the Book of Daniel by many Christian denominations. The text is not included in the Jewish Tanakh and is not mentioned in early Jewish literature, although it does appear to have been part of the original Septuagint from the 2nd century BC.[4]
Judith / Judy:[5] Diminutive of Judith, from the Hebrew name יְהוּדִית (Yehudit) meaning "woman from Judea". The Book of Judith is a deuterocanonical book included in the Septuagint and by some Christian denominations but excluded from the Hebrew canon. It tells of a Jewish widow, Judith, who uses her beauty and charm to destroy an Assyrian general and save Israel from oppression.
Although the text does not mention Hanukkah, it became customary for a Hebrew midrashic variant of the Judith story to be read on the Shabbat of Hanukkah, as the story of Hanukkah takes place during the time of the Hasmonean dynasty.
That midrash, whose heroine is portrayed as gorging the antagonist on cheese and wine before cutting off his head, may have formed the basis of the minor Jewish tradition to eat dairy products during Hanukkah.
In that respect, medieval Jewry appears to have viewed Judith as the Hasmonean counterpart to Queen Esther, the heroine of the holiday of Purim. The textual reliability of the Book of Judith was also taken for granted, to the extent that Ramban quoted several passages from an Aramaic version of Judith.
Jessica: This name was first used in this form by Shakespeare in his play 'The Merchant of Venice' (1596), where it belongs to the daughter of Shylock. The name most likely is based on the Hebrew name Yiskah, who is the daughter of Haran and the niece of Abraham in the Book of Genesis. According to the rabbinic midrash, Yiskah was another name or title for Sarah. The name means "one who looks forth".[6]
Samantha: It was created in the 18th century, possibly intended to be a feminine form of Samuel, with the addition of the already popular name suffix 'antha' (from Greek 'anthos' meaning flower).
Many girls’ names of Biblical origin come from nature - animal names or flowers:
Debra / Deborah - Variants of Deborah, from the Hebrew name דְּבוֹרָה (Devorah) meaning "bee".
Rachel - From the Hebrew name רָחֵל (Rachel), meaning "ewe".
Susan - ultimately derived from the Hebrew word שׁוֹשָׁן (shoshan) meaning "lily". See more on this name earlier.
Sharon - From the Hebrew שָׁרוֹן (Sharon), which means "plain", referring to the fertile plain near the coast of Israel.
The use of animal names later became common for Ashkenazi boys’ names as well, based on the Yiddish, with Yiddish animal names translated to Hebrew: Ze’ev (wolf), Tzvi (deer), Aryeh (lion), and Dov (bear).[7]
Ultimate origin is from the Hebrew Bible
Abigail - From the Hebrew name אֲבִיגָיִל ('Avigayil) meaning "my father is joy".
Anna - From the Hebrew name חַנָּה (Hannah), meaning "favor" or "grace".
Ann - English and Manx form of Anne, from the Hebrew name חַנָּה (Hannah), meaning "favor" or "grace".
Betty - Diminutive of Elizabeth, from the Hebrew name אֱלִישֶׁבַע ('Elisheva') meaning "my God is an oath".
Danielle - Feminine form of Daniel, from the Hebrew name דָּנִיֵּאל (Daniyyel) meaning "God is my judge".
Deborah - From the Hebrew name דְּבוֹרָה (Devorah) meaning "bee".
Debra - Variant of Deborah, from the Hebrew name דְּבוֹרָה (Devorah) meaning "bee".
Elizabeth - From the Hebrew name אֱלִישֶׁבַע ('Elisheva') meaning "my God is an oath".
Hannah - From the Hebrew name חַנָּה (Hannah), meaning "favor" or "grace".
Isabella - Latinate form of Isabel, a Medieval Occitan form of Elizabeth, which means "my God is an oath" from the Hebrew name אֱלִישֶׁבַע (Elisheva).
Jacqueline - French feminine form of Jacques, from the Late Latin Iacobus, from the Greek Ἰάκωβος (Iakobos), from the Hebrew name יַעֲקֹב (Ya'aqov), which means "supplanter" or "holder of the heel".
Janet - Medieval diminutive of JANE, a feminine form of Iohannes (the Latin form of the name John), which means "Yahweh is gracious".
Janice - An elaborated form of Jane, a feminine form of Iohannes (the Latin form of the name John), which means "Yahweh is gracious".
Jean - Medieval English form of Jehanne, an Old French feminine form of Iohannes (see John), meaning "Yahweh is gracious".
Jessica - This name was first used in this form by Shakespeare in his play 'The Merchant of Venice' (1596), where it belongs to the daughter of Shylock.
Joan - Medieval English form of Johanne, an Old French form of Iohanna (see Joanna), meaning "Yahweh is gracious".
Judith - From the Hebrew name יְהוּדִית (Yehudit) meaning "woman from Judea", Judea being an ancient region in Israel.
Judy - Diminutive of Judith, from the Hebrew name יְהוּדִית (Yehudit) meaning "woman from Judea".
Lisa - Short form of Elizabeth, from the Hebrew name אֱלִישֶׁבַע ('Elisheva') meaning "my God is an oath".
Maria - Latin form of Greek Μαρία, from Hebrew מִרְיָם (see MARY), meaning uncertain, possibly "beloved" or "love".
Marie - French and Czech form of Maria, from the Hebrew name מִרְיָם (Miryam), the meaning is not known for certain, but there are several theories including "sea of bitterness", "rebelliousness", and "wished for child".
Marilyn - Blend of the names Mary and Lynn. Mary is of uncertain origin, it's traditionally derived from מרים (Miryam), while Lynn comes from an English surname which was derived from Welsh llyn "lake".
Mary - English form of Maria, which is derived from the Hebrew name Miryam. The meaning is not known for certain, but theories include "sea of bitterness", "rebelliousness", and "wished for child".
Michelle - From the French feminine form of Michel, from the Hebrew name מִיכָאֵל (Mikha'el) meaning "Who is like God?".
Rachel - From the Hebrew name רָחֵל (Rachel), meaning "ewe".
Rebecca - From the Hebrew name רִבְקָה (Rivkah), probably meaning "a snare" in Hebrew.
Ruth - From the Hebrew name רְעוּת (Ruth), derived from רְעִי (re'iy) meaning "friend".
Samantha - It was created in the 18th century, possibly intended to be a feminine form of Samuel, with the addition of the already popular name suffix 'antha' (from Greek 'anthos' meaning flower).
Sara - Form of Sarah used in various languages, from the Hebrew name שָׂרָה (Sarah) meaning "lady, princess, noblewoman".
Sarah - From the Hebrew name שָׂרָה (Sarah) meaning "lady, princess, noblewoman".
Sharon - From the Hebrew name שָׁרוֹן (Sharon), which means "plain", referring to the fertile plain near the coast of Israel.
Susan - From Σουσάννα (Sousanna), the Greek form of the Hebrew name שׁוֹשַׁנָּה (Shoshannah). This was derived from the Hebrew word שׁוֹשָׁן (shoshan) meaning "lily".
Ultimate origin is Greco-Roman
Alexis - From the Greek name Αλέξις (Alexis), which meant "helper" or "defender", derived from Greek αλέξω (alexo) "to defend, to help".
Amanda - From the Latin amanda, the feminine form of the gerundive of amare ("to love"), thus meaning "worthy of being loved" or "worthy of love".
Amy - From the Old French Amee, derived from Latin Amata, from amare ("to love"). Thus it means "beloved".
Andrea - Feminine form of Andrew, from the Greek name Ανδρέας (Andreas), which was derived from ανδρείος (andreios) "manly, masculine".
Angela - From the Latin angelus or the Greek ἄγγελος (angelos), both meaning "messenger".
Barbara - Derived from Greek βάρβαρος (barbaros) meaning "foreign".
Catherine - From the Greek name Αἰκατερίνα (Aikaterina), possibly from εἰκάζειν (eikazein) "to torture" or else from εἰκών (eikon) "image, likeness".
Christina - Latin form of Christiana, the feminine form of Christian. This was the name of an early, possibly legendary, saint who was tormented by her pagan father.
Christine - From the Latin Christianus meaning "a Christian".
Cynthia - From the Greek name Κυνθία (Kynthia), which means "woman from Kynthos". This was an epithet of the Greek moon goddess Artemis, given because Kynthos was the mountain on Delos on which she and her twin brother Apollo were born.
Denise - Feminine form of Denis, from Dionysius, a Greek name meaning "follower of Dionysos", the Greek god of wine.
Diana - Probably derived from an old Indo-European root meaning "heavenly, divine", related to dyeus (cognate with Zeus). Diana was a Roman goddess of the moon, hunting, forests, and childbirth.
Diane - From the Latin Diana, derived from an Indo-European root meaning "heavenly, divine". Diana was a Roman goddess of the moon, hunting, forests, and childbirth.
Doris - From the Greek name Δωρίς (Doris), which meant "Dorian woman". The Dorians were a Greek tribe who occupied the Peloponnese starting in the 12th century BC.
Dorothy - From the English name Dorothy, from the Greek name Δωροθέα (Dōrothéa), which means "gift of God".
Emily - English feminine form of Aemilius, which is from the Roman family name which was derived from Latin aemulus meaning "rival".
Gloria - Derived from Latin gloria meaning "glory".
Grace - From the English word grace, which ultimately derives from Latin gratia. This was one of the virtue names created in the 17th century by the Puritans.
Helen - From the Greek Ἑλένη (Helene), probably derived from ἑλένη (helene) "torch" or "corposant", or possibly related to σελήνη (selene) "moon".
Julia - Feminine form of the Roman family name Julius, possibly derived from Greek ιουλος (ioulos) meaning "downy-bearded youth".
Julie - French form of Julia, from the Roman name Julius, possibly means "youthful" in Latin.
Karen - Danish short form of Katherine, which is from the Greek name Αἰκατερίνη (Aikaterine). The etymology is debated.
Katherine - From the Greek name Αἰκατερίνα (Aikaterina), possibly from εἰκάζειν (eikazein) "to torture" or else from εἰκών (eikon) "image, likeness".
Kathleen - Anglicized form of the Irish Caitlín, the Gaelic form of Catherine. It is derived from the Greek name Αἰκατερίνα (Aikaterina), possibly from εἰκάζειν (eikazein) "to torture" or else from εἰκών (eikon) "image, likeness".
Kathryn - Variant of Katherine, from the Greek name Αἰκατερίνα (Aikaterina), possibly from εἰκάζειν (eikazein) "to torture" or else from εἰκών (eikon) "image, likeness".
Laura - From the Latin laurus, which means "laurel".
Lauren - Variant of Laura, from the Latin laurus, which means "laurel".
Lori - Diminutive of Lorraine, from the name of a region in France, originally meaning "kingdom of Lothar". Lothar was a Frankish king, the great-grandson of Charlemagne, whose realm was in the part of France that is now called Lorraine, or in German Lothringen (from Latin Lothari regnum).
Margaret - Derived from Latin Margarita, which was from Greek μαργαρίτης (margarites) meaning "pearl".
Megan - Welsh diminutive of Margaret, from the Greek μαργαρίτης (margarites) meaning "pearl".
Melissa - From Ancient Greek μέλισσα (mélissa) meaning "bee", also an epithet of various ancient Greek nymphs and priestesses.
Natalie - From the Late Latin name Natalia, which meant "Christmas Day" from Latin natale domini.
Nicole - Feminine form of Nicholas, from the Greek name Νικόλαος (Nikolaos) meaning "victory of the people".
Olivia - Invented by Shakespeare for a character in 'Twelfth Night' (1602). It is based on Oliver or Oliva, or ultimately on Latin "oliva" meaning "olive".
Pamela - Invented by Sir Philip Sidney for a character in his poem 'Arcadia' (16th century). It may mean "all sweetness" from Greek πᾶν (pan) "all" and μέλι (meli) "honey".
Patricia - Feminine form of Patrick, from the Latin name Patricius, which meant "noblewoman".
Sandra - Short form of Alessandra, the Italian form of Alexandra, which is the feminine form of Alexander, from the Greek name Αλεξανδρος (Alexandros) meaning "defending men".
Sophia - From Greek Σοφία, meaning "wisdom".
Stephanie - From the Greek Στεφανία (Stephanía), the feminine form of Stephen/Στέφανος (Stéphanos), meaning "crown" or "garland".
Teresa - Of uncertain etymology; it may be derived from the Greek θέρος (theros), meaning "summer", θερίζω (therizo), meaning "to harvest", or from the name of the Greek island of Therasia.
Theresa - Uncertain origin, possibly from the Greek θέρος (theros) "summer", θερίζω (therizo) "to harvest", or from the name of the Greek island of Therasia.
Victoria - From the Latin name Victoria, meaning "victory". Victoria was the Roman goddess of victory.
Virginia - Feminine form of the Roman family name Verginius, which is of unknown meaning, possibly of Etruscan origin.
Ultimate origin is Germanic
Shirley - From the English place name Shirley, which is derived from the Old English elements scire "bright" and leah "wood, clearing".
Brenda - Possibly a feminine form of the Old Norse name Brandr, meaning "sword" or "torch
Emma - From the Old High German ermin, meaning "universal".
Heather - From the English word for the variety of small shrubs with pink or white flowers, which commonly grow in rocky areas.
Joyce - From a Norman French name Josce which was derived from the Germanic name Gautsche, a derivative of the tribal name of the Geats.
Evelyn - From an English surname that was derived from the given name Aveline. In the 17th century when it was first used as a given name it was more common for boys, but it is now a predominantly feminine name.
Cheryl - An invention of the 20th century, probably a blend of Cherry and Beryl.
Madison - From an English surname meaning "son of Maud", a medieval diminutive of Matilda.
Frances - Feminine form of Francis, from the Late Latin name Franciscus which meant "Frenchman".
Alice - From the Old French name Aalis, a short form of Adelais, itself a short form of the Germanic name Adalheidis, which was composed of the elements adal "noble" and heid "kind, sort, type".
Beverly - From an English surname which was originally derived from a place name meaning "beaver stream" in Old English.
Charlotte - Feminine diminutive of Charles, from the Germanic name Karl, which was derived from a Germanic word meaning "man".
Carol - From the English given name Carol, from the French Charles, from the Germanic name Karl, meaning "man".
Carolyn - English variant of Caroline, a feminine form of Carolus (the Latin version of Charles), which means "man".
Appendix: The Jewish apocrypha (הספרים החיצונים) in later Jewish literature[8]
References to the Seforim Chitzonim can be found in traditional rabbinic literature, and especially to Ben Sira, Jubilees and the Testaments of the Tribes. Some of the rabbis treated the Seforim Chitzonim negatively, and some of them positively.
Rashi's commentary to Sanhedrin mentioned them negatively. He says that these books contain nonsense (דברי הבאי), and they are a waste of time (ביטול תורה).
Rashbam had a negative attitude towards the Seforim Chitzonim, and wrote "One should not bother with the Seforim Chitzonim". On the other hand, the Ramban expressed a positive attitude towards them, and in his preface to his Commentary of the Torah he cites passages from the book of Wisdom of Solomon, which he apparently had in his Aramaic translation. Shoshana, from the additions to Daniel, was also known to the Ramban in its Aramaic original.
It is known that as early as the ninth century at least fragments of the Jubilees were preserved by Assaf Harofeh, and possibly also by the students of Rabbi Saadia Gaon.
In subsequent generations, the Hebrew sources of the Seforim Chitzonim were lost, and Jewish scholars would use translations rather than the original. For example, some interpret the words of the Zohar as expressing his sorrow that the books of Enoch and Adam in their Hebrew original did not survive.
In books such as Yosifon, Yerchamel and Yohasin HaShalem, stories from the Seforim Chitzonim are used.
At different times translations of the Seforim Chitzonim were made back into Hebrew. For example, there is a Hebrew translation of Hasmoneans which originates before the 11th century, translations of Tobiah, Judith and others. Rabbi Azaria de Rossi translated some of the Seforim Chitzonim for himself and used them in his books.
There was a revival of interest in Seforim Chitzonim among the Jewish maskilim, during the 19th-century Jewish Enlightenment period. Naftali Hertz Weisel and Yehuda Leib Ben Ze'ev translated some of the Seforim Chitzonim into Hebrew.
[1] See Tal Ilan’s series on Late Antique Hebrew names.
[2] Jewish apocrypha - Wikipedia
[4] Susanna (Book of Daniel) - Wikipedia
[5] Book of Judith - Wikipedia
[6] The following section is taken from Book of Judith - Wikipedia and Jessica - Wiktionary, with adjustments.
[7] Cf. also Edwin D. Lawson, “Personal Naming Systems”, The Oxford Handbook of Names and Naming (2016), p. 14: “Double names found especially among Yiddish speaking Eastern European Jewry were generally a sacred Hebrew anthroponym and a secular Yiddish translation or complementary name.” And see Kinnui - Wikipedia :
“Some kinnuim (the Hebrew plural of kinnui) sound similar to the corresponding Hebrew name, for example Mendel for Menachem, Anshel for Asher. A few kinnuim are based on the animal-like attributes of four of the sons of Jacob and one of his grandsons: Judah, the lion (cf. the family name Lyon, Loewe); Benjamin, the wolf (cf. the family name Woolf); Naphtali, the deer (cf. the family names Hirsch, Hersch, Harris); and Issachar, the donkey (or the bear) (cf. the family names Bar, Baer, Barell, Barnard, Bernhardt, Berthold, Schulter); plus Ephraim, the fish (cf. the family name Fish).”
See this list of common Hebrew names, from all periods: https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Hebrew_given_names
[8] The following section is a translation of הספרים החיצוניים – ויקיפדיה > “היחס של חכמי ישראל לאחר תקופת התלמוד לספרים החיצוניים”, , with adjustments.