Pt1 Divine Names, Oaths, and Curses: Erasure, Sanctity, and Speech (Shevuot 35b-36a)

What Makes a Name “Divine”? Erasing, Oaths, and Blasphemy

This is the first part of a three-part series.¹ The outline of the series is below.

Intro - What Makes a Name “Divine”? Erasing, Oaths, and Blasphemy

This sugya moves along two tracks that meet often:

1. Which written forms count as God’s name for the erasure prohibition²

2. Which spoken forms count as God’s name for an oath in court (for an oath invoking God)

The sugya opens with a baraita that discusses partial spellings and affixes; it then tests the boundaries with biblical case studies, philological distinctions, and practical rulings. It closes by mapping oath language—ala (אָלָה), arur, amen, “yes/no”—onto halakhic categories, and by contrasting R’ Meir with the Rabbis on blasphemy and inferential wording.

The opening baraita draws a sharp line between letter-pairs that are intrinsically divine and those that are not. Writing ‘El’ from ‘Elohim’ or ‘Yah’ from the Tetragrammaton (=’YHWH’) yields a form that may not be erased. By contrast, ‘SD’ (שד) from ‘Shaddai’, ‘AD’ (אד) from ‘Adonai’, ‘ZV’ (צב) from ‘Tzevaot’ may be erased (as these are incomplete words and have no independent meaning). R’ Yosei radicalizes this: even the full ‘Tzevaot’ is erasable because it denotes Israel’s “hosts,” not an independent divine name (Exod 7:4).

A second baraita treats affixes. Anything “ancillary” (ṭafel) to God’s name—prefix or suffix—may be erased. Examples span the Hebrew prepositions/prefixes: ל־, ב־, ו־, מ־, ש־, ה־, כ־ before the Tetragrammaton are permitted to be erase. Pronoun suffixes attached to ‘Elohim’ (e.g., “אלהינו/אלהיהם/אלהיכם”) are also removable. Aḥerim disagree about the back end: once the name appears, it “sanctifies” what follows—suffixes may not be erased.

From forms to referents: a series of biblical test cases determines whether occurrences of ‘Elohim’, ‘Adonai’, and ‘Shlomo’ are sacred or not, i.e., do they refer to God or to humans/idols. With Abraham (Gen 18:3), the default is: God’s name—except ‘Adonai’ there, which many read as “my lords” to angels. Ḥanina (nephew of R’ Yehoshua) and R’ Elazar b. Azarya, citing R’ Elazar HaModa’i, insist it is sacred—Abraham addresses God—supporting the maxim that hospitality outranks receiving the Shekhina only if Abraham first addresses God and then turns to guests. Lot is the mirror: most “names” around him are non-sacred (address to angels) except Gen 19:18–19, where appeal to the One who can kill and vivify marks a direct address to God.

The same method tests Naboth (1 Kings 21: sacred) against Micah (Judges 17–18: non-sacred, addressing an idol). R’ Eliezer refines: in Micah, forms with ‘El/Elohim’ are often non-sacred, ‘Yah/YHWH’ are sacred, with one notable ‘Elohim’ at Judg 18:31 that is sacred (“בית האלהים” at Shiloh). He also reads the Gibeah consultation (Judg 20) as non-sacred; R’ Yehoshua counters: sacred—God answered exactly what was asked, and only at the third consultation (Judg 20:28) did they ask about victory and receive full consent.

In Song of Songs, every ‘Shlomo’ (שלמה) is sacred—“a song to the One whose peace is His”—except 8:12, where “1,000” go to Solomon, “200” to the guardians (rabbis). A variant even secularizes 3:7 (“מטתו שלשלמה”). Shmuel aligns with the “some say” version: 8:12 encodes a distinction between heavenly and earthly monarchy (1,000 vs. 200). In Daniel, the Aramaic word for “king” (מלכא) is generally non-sacred except 2:37; some add 4:16, reading ‘Mari’³ as God, not Nebuchadnezzar.

The sugya then pivots to speech acts. The Mishnah’s line—oaths administered “by appellations”⁴ are binding—runs into a baraita tying oath-of-testimony language to the sota ritual by gezerah shavah: ‘ala’ (אלה) implies oath and the name of God. Abaye resolves: that baraita reflects R’ Ḥanina bar Idi, who pairs “swear/do not swear” and “curse/do not curse”: prohibitions mirror obligations and both are “in the name.” The Rabbis either accept the analogy and still limit to appellations, or derive ‘ala’ as an oath term via usage. R’ Abbahu buttresses the lexicon: ala is oath (Ezek 17:13; 2 Chron 36:13).

A compact lexicography follows. Arur carries three senses: ostracism (Judg 5:23, with Ulla’s note on mass shofar niddui), curse (Deut 27), and oath (Josh 6:26; 1 Sam 14:24–27). Amen likewise bears three: oath (Num 5), acceptance (Deut 27:26), affirmation/wish-fulfillment (Jer 28:6). R’ Elazar extends oath-language to bare “no”/”yes” (לאו/הן). Rava limits this: only when doubled (“no no” , “yes yes” - “לאו לאו,” “הן הן”), modeled on the doubled negation of the Noahide flood promises (Gen 9). The upshot is a graded map from explicit divine names to oath-coded terms that still carry juridical force.

On liability: R’ Meir reads Lev 24:15–16 expansively—execution even for blasphemy⁵ via appellations. The Rabbis restrict death to the Tetragrammaton (=‘YHWH’) and assign only a prohibition to appellations. For cursing parents, the sugya identifies the “Rabbis” as R’ Menaḥem b. Yosei: capital punishment requires using God’s name explicit in the curse. Yet when cursing oneself or another, everyone agrees there is a prohibition (Deut 4:9; Lev 19:14). Two classroom vignettes add a pragmatic rule: when quoting curse formulas before a teacher, euphemize into third-person (“he”, not “you”)—respect registers even when citing sources verbatim.

Outline

Intro

Mishnah (Mishnah Shevuot 4:13)

1. Liability for Oath Formulations: Oath of testimony with formulation of “I administer an oath (משביע) to you”, “I command (מצוה) you”, “I bind you (אוסרכם)”

2. Oath of testimony employing names or appellations of God -- A List of Nine divine epithets (’Adonai’, Tetragrammaton, ‘Shaddai’, ‘Tzevaot’, etc)

3. Dispute R’ Meir vs. Rabbis - Blasphemy or Cursing parents employing any of these names or appellations of God

4. Cursing oneself employing any of these names or appellations of God

5. Curses as Oaths of Testimony: Oath of testimony with formulation of “[YHWH] God (אלהים - ‘Elohim’) shall strike you”

6. Dispute R’ Meir vs. Rabbis - Oath of testimony with formulation of “God (אל - ‘El’) shall strike/bless/benefit you”

Talmud

1. Baraita - ‘El’ (‘EL’) from ‘Elohim’ (‘ELYHM’) and ‘Yah’ (‘YH’) from ‘YHWH’ (=Tetragrammaton) may not be erased; ‘Shed’ (‘SD’) from ‘Shaddai’ (‘SDY’), ‘Ad’ (‘AD’) from ‘Adonai’ (‘ADNY’), and ‘ZV’ from ‘Tzevaot (‘ZVAOT’) may be erased

2. R’ Yosei - The word “Tzevaot” is allowed to be erased; it names Israel’s hosts, not an independent name of God - Exodus 7:4

3. Baraita - Prefixes or suffixes attached to God’s name are allowed to be erased

   1. Seven Prefixes: ל־, ב־, ו־, מ־, ש־, ה־, כ־

   2. Three Suffixes in ‘Elohei + -nu/-hem/-khem’

4. Alternative opinion - Suffix after the divine name is prohibited to erase; the name sanctifies it

The halachic status of potentially divine names (especially ‘Adonai’ and ’Elohim’) in the Bible in Seven contexts: Abraham, Lot, Naboth, Micah, Gibeah of Benjamin, “Shlomo” in Song of Songs, and “king” in Daniel

1. All divine names in the context of Abraham are sacred except Gen 18:3, which is non-sacred (“my lords”)

2. Ḥanina nephew of R’ Yehoshua & R’ Elazar ben Azarya, citing R’ Elazar HaModa’i - Even Gen 18:3 is sacred (Abraham addressing God)

3. All divine names in the context of Lot are non-sacred except Gen 19:18–19, which is sacred (address to God who can kill/vivify)

4. All divine names in the context of Naboth (1 Kings 21) are sacred; in the context of Micah (Judges 17–18): non-sacred (idol)

   1. R’ Eliezer - In Micah: Tetragrammaton (‘YHWH’) forms are sacred; ‘Adonai’ forms are non-sacred, except Judges 18:31 where ‘Adonai’ is sacred - Judges 18:31

5. R’ Eliezer - Divine names in the Gibeah of Benjamin narrative are non-sacred - Judges 20

   1. R’ Yehoshua - They are sacred; God answered according to what they asked; full consent only the third time - Judges 20:28

6. All appearances of the word “Shlomo” in Song of Songs are sacred (“to the One whose peace is His”)

   1. ... except 8:12 (Solomon himself; “200” for the rabbis) - 8:12

7. Alternate view - Even 3:7 (“bed of Solomon”) is non-sacred

8. Shmuel - “1,000” = heavenly monarchy; “200” = earthly monarchy - Song 8:12; 3:7

9. All appearances of the word “king” in Daniel are non-sacred except 2:37, which is sacred - Daniel 2:37

   1. Alternative view - 4:16 is also sacred; “my Lord” (‘Mari’) addressed to God, not Nebuchadnezzar - Daniel 4:16

The functions and meanings of ‘ala’, ‘arur’, ‘amen’, and “yes/no”

1. R’ Abbahu - ‘Ala’ = oath - Ezekiel 17:13; 2 Chronicles 36:13

2. Baraita - The word ‘Arur’ carries the triple senses of ostracism, curse, and oath

   1. Prooftexts - Judges 5:23; Deuteronomy 27:13,15; Joshua 6:26; 1 Samuel 14:24,27

3. R’ Yosei b. Ḥanina - The word ‘Amen’ includes the triple senses of oath, acceptance, and affirmation

   1. Prooftexts - Numbers 5:21–22; Deuteronomy 27:26; Jeremiah 28:6

4. R’ Elazar - The words “No” and “Yes” can function as oaths

5. Rava - Such oaths require doubling (“no, no” / “yes, yes”)

   1. Prooftexts - Genesis 9:11,15

6. Anecdote of Rav Yehuda and Rav Kahana - When citing biblical curse formulas before a teacher, euphemize to 3rd person

7. Anecdote of Rav Kahana - Use euphemism when quoting verses of curse - Psalms 52:7

Appendix 1 - Literary structure of the baraita of the halachic status of potentially divine names (especially ‘Adonai’ and ’Elohim’) in the Bible in Seven contexts: Abraham, Lot, Naboth, Micah, Gibeah of Benjamin, “Shlomo” in Song of Songs, and “king” in Daniel

Appendix 2 - Divine Names, Oaths, and Blasphemy: A Modern Scholarly Framing

1. Divine Names As Epithet Systems, Not a Flat List

2. Scribal Practice and the Tetragrammaton

3. Narrative Casework vs. Source Criticism

4. Daniel’s “King” and Aramaic Polysemy

5. Oath and Curse As Performative Speech

6. Blasphemy, Appellations, and Historical Law

7. Lexeme, Reference, and Pragmatics

8. What This Means For Reading the Bible

Appendix 3 - The protocol for judging the capital crime of blasphemy (Mishnah Sanhedrin 7:5)

Mishnah (Mishnah Shevuot 4:13)

Mishnah_Shevuot.4.13 (=Shevuot.35a.17-22)

Liability for Oath Formulations: Oath of testimony with formulation of “I administer an oath (משביע) to you”, “I command (מצוה) you”, “I bind you (אוסרכם)”

If witnesses are adjured to testify⁶ using any of the terms “I administer an oath to you” (משביע אני עליכם), “I command you” (מצוה אני עליכם), or “I bind you” (אוסרכם אני), they are liable for perjury.

However, if the adjuration invokes Heaven and Earth (בשמים ובארץ), it is invalid (since it does not name God).

1. משביע אני עליכם,

2. מצוה אני עליכם,

3. אוסרכם אני --

הרי אלו חיבין

The mishna discusses the formula of an oath of testimony.

If the plaintiff said to the witnesses:

1. I administer an oath (משביע) to you concerning your refusal to testify if you do not come and testify on my behalf,

2. or even if he said: I command (מצוה) you,

3. or I bind you (אוסרכם) --

although he did not employ an unequivocal formula of an oath, these witnesses are liable for taking a false oath of testimony.

בשמים ובארץ --

הרי אלו פטורין.

If one administered the oath to the witnesses in the name of Heaven and in the name of Earth (בשמים ובארץ) --

these witnesses are exempt from liability for taking a false oath of testimony,

as that is not an oath in the name of God.

Oath of testimony employing names or appellations of God -- A List of Nine divine epithets (’Adonai’, Tetragrammaton, ‘Shaddai’, ‘Tzevaot’, etc)

Adjurations employing any of nine divine epithets—Adonai, the Tetragrammaton, Shaddai, Tzevaot, Chanun, Rachum, Erekh Appayim, Rav Chesed, or any appellation of God—create liability.

1. באל”ף דל”ת,

2. ביו”ד ה”א,

3. בשדי,

4. בצבאות,

5. בחנון

6. ורחום,

7. בארך אפים

8. ורב חסד,

9. ובכל הכנויין --

הרי אלו חיבין.

If one administered the oath to the witnesses

1. in the name of alef dalet, i.e., Adonai;

2. in the name of yod heh, the Tetragrammaton (=’YHWH’);

3. in the name of the Almighty [Shaddai];

4. in the name of the Lord of Hosts [Tzevaot];

5. in the name of the Gracious (חנון)

6. and Compassionate (רחום) One;

7. in the name of He Who is Slow to Anger (ארך אפים);

8. in the name of He Who is Abounding in Loving-kindness (רב חסד);

9. or in the name of any of the appellations (כנויין) of God --

even though he did not mention the Tetragrammaton, these witnesses are liable for taking a false oath of testimony.

Dispute R’ Meir vs. Rabbis - Blasphemy or Cursing parents employing any of these names or appellations of God

R’ Meir holds that one who curses God or one’s parents⁷ using any divine epithet is liable for execution; the Rabbis restrict liability to use of the Tetragrammaton.

1. המקלל בכלן --

   1. חיב, דברי רבי מאיר,

   2. וחכמים פוטרין.

2. המקלל אביו ואמו בכלן --

   1. חיב, דברי רבי מאיר,

   2. וחכמים פוטרין.

1. One who curses God employing any of these names or appellations of God --

   1. is liable to be executed through stoning; this is the statement of R’ Meir.

   2. And the Rabbis deem him exempt, as they hold that one is liable for cursing God only if he employs the Tetragrammaton.

2. One who curses his father or his mother employing any of these names or appellations of God --

   1. is liable to be executed through stoning; this is the statement of R’ Meir.

   2. And the Rabbis deem him exempt, as they hold that one is liable for cursing his father and his mother only if he employs the Tetragrammaton.

Cursing oneself employing any of these names or appellations of God

Cursing oneself or another with any divine appellation violates a prohibition (בלא תעשה; but it’s not capital).

המקלל עצמו וחברו בכלן --

עובר בלא תעשה.

One who curses himself or another employing any of these names or appellations of God --

violates a prohibition.

Curses as Oaths of Testimony: Oath of testimony with formulation of “[YHWH] God (אלהים - ‘Elohim’) shall strike you”

If one adjures witnesses with the phrase “YHWH God shall strike you” or “God (Elohim) shall strike you”, this constitutes a valid curse (’alah’) from the Torah (Deuteronomy 28:22; thus creating liability).

1. יככה ה׳ אלהים,

2. וכן יככה אלהים --

זו היא אלה הכתובה בתורה.

If one says:

1. YHWH God shall strike you (see Deuteronomy 28:22),

2. and likewise if one says: God (אלהים - ‘Elohim’) shall strike you if you do not come to testify --

that is a curse⁸ that is written in the Torah,

and in such a case one is certainly liable if he fails to testify.

Dispute R’ Meir vs. Rabbis - Oath of testimony with formulation of “God (אל - ‘El’) shall strike/bless/benefit you”

If the adjuration uses “ ‘El’ shall strike/bless/benefit you”, R’ Meir deems it binding (since the inverse curse is implied), whereas the Rabbis exempt (as the curse is not explicit).

אל

1. יכך,

2. ויברכך,

3. וייטיב לך,

רבי מאיר מחיב

וחכמים פוטרין

If one says to the witnesses:

God (אל - El) shall

1. strike you,

2. or: God shall bless you,

3. or: God shall benefit you if you come and testify --

R’ Meir deems him liable, as one may infer from that statement that if he fails to testify God will strike him, or will not bless or benefit him.

And the Rabbis deem him exempt because the curse is not explicitly stated.

1. On this topic, compare these previous pieces of mine:

• Appendix - The Nine Sacred Names of God That Must Not Be Erased and the Ten Divine Descriptives Permitted to Erase (Shevuot 35a)

• The Many Names of God: Divine Epithets in the Talmud

2. On this prohibition in general, see Hebrew Wikipedia, “מחיקת השם”.

3. מרי - Aramaic: “my lord”.

Compare Wikipedia, “Mar (title)”. And compare also my discussion in “Understanding Honorifics in the Talmudic Era”, section “Mar“.

4. כינויים - “epithets, aliases”.

On this word, see Jastrow (modernized):

כִּינּוּי

(כָּנָה) by-name, surname; attribute, substituted word.

• Mishnah Sanhedrin 7:5 - דנין … בכינוי - “the witnesses are examined by using a substitute for the Divine Name” (see יוֹסֵי).

• Mishnah Sotah 7:6 - במקדש … ובמדינה בכִינּוּיוֹ - “in the Temple the Divine Name is pronounced as it is written, in the country (outside the Temple) by its substitute (Adonai)”

• Sotah 38a:2 - בכינוי, as opposed to שם המפורש;

• and elsewhere.

Plural: כִּינּוּיִים, כִּינּוּיִין, כִּנּ׳.

• Mishnah Nedarim 1:1 - כִּינּוּיֵי נדרים - “words used as substitutes for vows (נדר)”

• Mishnah Nedarim 1:2 - כינויים לחרם - “substitutes for ḥerem” (see חֵרֶק);

• and frequently.

כִּינּוּיֵי כִּינּוּיִין secondary substitutes, for example the use of g’rog’roth for tirosh and this for eshkol, see גְּרוֹגֶרֶת.

• Tosefta Nazir 2:1;

• Yerushalmi ibid. 2, beginning: 51d

5. On this prohibition in general, see Hebrew Wikipedia, “ברכת השם”.

6. On this in general, see Hebrew Wikipedia, “שבועת העדות”.

7. On this prohibition in general, see Hebrew Wikipedia, “איסור קללת אב ואם”.

8. אלה - ‘ala’.