Pt1 Expressions of praise in the Book of Psalms and the Origin of the Hallel Prayer (Pesachim 117a)

Appendix - Linguistic Debates Over the Word "Halleluya" and Related Theophoric Words

In honor of the upcoming Passover holiday. Chag Sameach!

This is the first part of a two-part series. The outline for the series is below.

This sugya engages in a wide-ranging discussion on the origins, structure, and liturgical function of the Hallel and the term Halleluya within the Psalms.

See Wikipedia, “Hallel”

Hallel (Hebrew: הַלֵּל, 'Praise') is a Jewish prayer, a verbatim recitation from Psalms 113–118 which is recited by observant Jews on Jewish holidays as an act of praise and thanksgiving.

And ibid., “Hallelujah”, with slight adjustments:

Halleluyah (Hebrew: הַלְּלוּ־יָהּ, lit. 'praise Yah') is an interjection from the Hebrew language, used as an expression of gratitude to God.

The term is used 24 times in the Bible, in the book of Psalms [...]

Halleluyah [...] means "praise Yah!" (from הַלְּלוּ, "praise ye!" and יָהּ, "Yah").

The word hallēl (הַלֵּל) in Hebrew means a joyous praise in song.

The second part, Yah, is a shortened form of YHWH [...]

What begins as a philological inquiry into the meaning of Halleluya—is it a superlative or a reference to the divine name?—unfolds into a broader meditation on the authorship of the Psalms, the historical origins of Hallel, its place in Israelite and Jewish ritual life, and the theological implications of its usage.

The sugya raises foundational questions: Did David compose all the Psalms? Who first instituted the public recitation of Hallel, and in response to what kind of salvation? Do individual psalms reflect personal piety, national liturgy, or both? And how do we read the structure of the Psalms themselves—where do chapters begin and end, and what does the placement of the word “Halleluya” signal about that structure?

Outline

Expressions of praise in the Book of Psalms and the Origin of the Hallel Prayer (Pesachim 117a)

1. The Ten Expressions of Praise in Psalms: Ten Distinct Terms for Praise

2. Origins and Function of Hallel: Prophetic Institution of Hallel for Use in Times of Trouble and Redemption

3. R' Meir: David Composed All of Psalms

4. Who First Recited Hallel? Attribution to Moses and the Sea Crossing; Attribution to King David; Historical Passover sacrifice, lulav-waving, and Micah’s Idol as Counter-Arguments

5. About Whom Did David Compose the Psalms?: About himself or about the community

6. Nitzuaḥ, Niggun, Maskil, Mizmor - Divine Inspiration and Delivery Methods in the Opening Formulas of Psalms: Future Fulfillment of Praise; Public Dissemination of Maskil Psalms; Chronology of Inspiration in Davidic Psalms

7. Which Historical Group First Recited Hallel and Why? Six Opinions (Psalms 115:1; Isaiah 48:11)

8. The consensus Sages View on the Institution of Hallel: Prophetic Institution of Hallel for Use in Times of Trouble and Redemption

Appendix 1 - Linguistic Debates Over the Word "Halleluya" and Related Theophoric Words (Pesachim 117a)

Intro

1. Word boundaries and the the divine name "Yah" in “Halleluya” and related words

2. Empirical Philology: The observations of Rav and Rav Ḥisda of Psalms manuscripts in the beit midrash of R’ Ḥiyya and Rav Ḥanin bar Rav (respectively)

3. The Function of “Halleluya” in Psalms

4. Halleluya as a Formulaic and Structural Marker

Linguistic Debates Over the Word "Halleluya" and Related Theophoric Words (Pesachim 117a)

1. Halleluya, Kesya, Yedidya, and Merḥavya: One Word or Two?

2. The Meaning of "Halleluya"

3. The Placement of "Halleluya" in Psalms and Its Significance: Dispute Over Chapter and Section Boundaries

4. List of Five Verses Where “Halleluya” Marks the Start of a New Psalm

Appendix 2 - The “Biblicist” (Kara): Bible Experts in the Talmud

1. Betrothal on condition of Bible or Mishnah literacy and study (Kiddushin 49a)

2. R’ Ḥanina the Biblicist (Berakhot 30b)

3. The Three Biblicists: Rav, Shmuel, and R' Yoḥanan (Avodah Zarah 40a)

The Passage

Pesachim.117a.6-20

The Ten Expressions of Praise in Psalms: Ten Distinct Terms for Praise

R' Yehoshua ben Levi states that the book of Psalms employs 10 different “expressions (מאמרות) of praise (שבח)” : nitzuaḥ, niggun, maskil, mizmor, shir, ashrei, tehilla, tefilla, hoda’a, and Halleluya.¹

Among these, he considers Halleluya the greatest, because it unites both “[God’s] name”² and “praise” (שבח) in a single utterance.³

אמר רבי יהושע בן לוי:

בעשרה מאמרות של שבח נאמר ספר תהלים:

1. ב״ניצוח״,

2. ב״נגון״,

3. ב״משכיל״,

4. ב״מזמור״,

5. ב״שיר״,

6. ב״אשרי״,

7. ב״תהלה״,

8. ב״תפלה״,

9. ב״הודאה״,

10. ב״הללויה״.

גדול מכולן ״הללויה״,

שכולל שם ושבח בבת אחת

[...]

R' Yehoshua ben Levi said:

The book of Psalms is said by means of ten expressions of praise:

1. By nitzuaḥ,

2. niggun,

3. maskil,

4. mizmor,

5. shir,

6. ashrei,

7. tehilla,

8. tefilla,

9. hoda’a,

10. and Halleluya.

He continues: The greatest of them all is Halleluya,

as it includes God’s name and praise at one time

[...]

Origins and Function of Hallel: Prophetic Institution of Hallel for Use in Times of Trouble and Redemption

The Talmud questions who instituted the recitation of Hallel (Psalms 113–118) as referenced in the Mishnah.

The answer given is that the Prophets among the people established Hallel for recitation on every appropriate occasion.

Hallel is to be recited during times of trouble as a form of supplication, and upon redemption, it is recited in thanksgiving:

“on every [appropriate] occasion (כל פרק ופרק)

and for every trouble (צרה), may it not come upon them [=the Jewish people].

And when they are redeemed,⁴ they [will] recite it over their redemption (גאולתן)”

והלל זה מי אמרו?

נביאים שביניהן תקנו להן לישראל

שיהו אומרין אותו על כל פרק ופרק,

ועל כל צרה וצרה, שלא תבא עליהן.

ולכשנגאלין, אומרים אותו על גאולתן.

The Gemara asks: And who said this hallel mentioned in the mishna, Psalms 113–118?

The Gemara answers: The Prophets among them established this hallel for the Jewish people,

that they should recite it on every appropriate occasion;

and for every trouble, may it not come upon them, they recite the supplications included in hallel.

When they are redeemed, they recite it over their redemption, as hallel includes expressions of gratitude for the redemption.

R' Meir: David Composed All of Psalms

A baraita records R' Meir’s claim that all praises (תושבחות) in Psalms were said by David, interpreting “kalu tefillot David” (Psalms 72:20) as “kol elu” — “all these.”

תניא:

היה רבי מאיר אומר:

כל תושבחות האמורות בספר תהלים כלן

דוד אמרן,

שנאמר: ״כלו תפלות דוד בן ישי״ —

אל תיקרי ״כלו״, אלא ״כל אלו״.

It was taught in a baraita that

R' Meir would say:

All the praises stated in the book of Psalms

were recited by David,

as it is stated: “The prayers of David, son of Yishai, are ended [kalu]” (Psalms 72:20).

Do not read kalu; rather, read kol elu, all of these, which indicates that the entire book of Psalms consists of the prayers of King David.

Who First Recited Hallel? Attribution to Moses and the Sea Crossing; Attribution to King David; Historical Passover sacrifice, lulav-waving, and Micah’s Idol as Counter-Arguments

R' Yosei cites his son Elazar, who asserts that Hallel was first recited by Moses and the Jewish people upon their miraculous deliverance at the sea.

However, Elazar’s contemporaries argue that Hallel originated later, authored and instituted by David.

R' Yosei favors his son’s opinion. He reasons that it is implausible the Jewish people would have celebrated all major rituals (across the generations)—such as the Passover sacrifice and lulav-waving (on Sukkot)—without singing a formal song like Hallel.

An alternative argument for Hallel’s antiquity notes the absurdity of Jews reciting Hallel (which includes the line in Psalms 115:8: “They who make them shall be like them”) during a time when Micah’s idol still existed (supporting the view that Hallel predates David).

הלל זה מי אמרו?

רבי יוסי אומר:

אלעזר בני אומר:

משה וישראל אמרוהו,

בשעה שעלו מן הים.

וחלוקין עליו חביריו, לומר:

שדוד אמרו.

ונראין דבריו מדבריהן.

אפשר ישראל שחטו את פסחיהן ונטלו לולביהן, ולא אמרו שירה?!

דבר אחר:

פסלו של מיכה עומד בבכי, וישראל אומרים את ההלל?!

who recited this hallel?

R' Yosei says:

My son Elazar says that

Moses and the Jewish people recited it

when they ascended from the sea.

And his colleagues dispute him, saying that

it was recited by King David.

And the statement of my son, Elazar, appears more accurate than their statement.

The reason is as follows: Is it possible that the Jewish people slaughtered their Paschal lambs and took and waved their lulavim all those generations without reciting a song?!

Alternatively,

is it possible that Micah’s idol stood in tears, and the Jewish people were reciting hallel before it?

The reference is to the idol of Micah, which was still standing in the days of David (see Judges 17). The Gemara states that the idol was crying, as a euphemism for its laughter, to avoid shaming the Jewish people (ge’onim). The point is that the Jews would not have chanted: “They who make them shall be like them” (Psalms 115:8) at a time that they were worshipping idols. Rather, hallel must be older than that, and it dates back to the Song at the Sea.

About Whom Did David Compose the Psalms?: About himself or about the community

A baraita presents three views regarding “the songs (שירות) and praise (תושבחות) that David recited in the book of Psalms":

1. R' Eliezer says David composed them about (כנגד) himself

2. R' Yehoshua says about the community (ציבור)

3. the Sages (חכמים) distinguish by grammatical number⁵ — singular psalms about himself, plural about the community.

תנו רבנן:

כל שירות ותושבחות שאמר דוד בספר תהלים,

1. רבי אליעזר אומר: כנגד עצמו אמרן.

2. רבי יהושע אומר: כנגד ציבור אמרן.

3. וחכמים אומרים: יש מהן כנגד ציבור, ויש מהן כנגד עצמו:

   1. האמורות בלשון יחיד — כנגד עצמו

   2. האמורות בלשון רבים — כנגד ציבור.

The Sages taught in a baraita that

with regard to all the songs and praise that David recited in the book of Psalms,

1. R' Eliezer says: David said them about himself. They were the praises of an individual that were later transmitted to the community.

2. R' Yehoshua says: He originally said them about the community. He composed all of the psalms for the people, including those he wrote about himself.

3. And the Rabbis say: There are among these psalms some that are about the community, and there are among these psalms some that are about himself:

   1. The psalms that are stated in the singular form are about himself,

   2. and those stated in the plural form are about the community.

Nitzuaḥ, Niggun, Maskil, Mizmor - Divine Inspiration and Delivery Methods in the Opening Formulas of Psalms: Future Fulfillment of Praise; Public Dissemination of Maskil Psalms; Chronology of Inspiration in Davidic Psalms

The Talmud lists rules re Psalms incipits: ⁶

1. When a psalm opens with nitzuaḥ (נצוח) or niggun (נגון), it signals that its praise is directed toward a future (messianic) fulfillment.⁷

2. Psalms beginning with maskil (משכיל) were delivered via a public disseminator.⁸

3. If the psalm starts with “Of David, a mizmor” (לדוד מזמור), it indicates that the Shekhina rested on David first (prompting him to sing).

4. Conversely, if it begins with “A mizmor of David” (מזמור לדוד), it implies that David first began to sing, and only afterward did the Shekhina rest upon him.

1. ״ניצוח״ ו״ניגון״ —

   1. לעתיד לבא.

2. ״משכיל״ —

   1. על ידי תורגמן.

3. ״לדוד מזמור״ —

   1. מלמד: ששרתה עליו שכינה, ואחר כך אמר שירה.

4. ״מזמור לדוד״ —

   1. מלמד: שאמר שירה, ואחר כך שרתה עליו שכינה.

[...]

The Gemara continues to discuss the book of Psalms.

1. If a psalm begins with the terms nitzuaḥ or niggun:

   1. this indicates that its praise will be fulfilled in the future.

2. Psalms that begin with the word maskil

   1. were delivered by means of a disseminator, a spokesman in a public address. The lecturer would speak softly, followed by a repetition of his discourse in the disseminator’s louder voice, so that everyone could hear.

3. If a psalm begins: Of David a psalm,

   1. this teaches that the Divine Presence rested upon him first and afterward he recited the song.

4. However, if a psalm opens with: A psalm of David,

   1. this teaches that he first recited the song, and afterward the Divine Presence rested upon him.

[...]

1. Compare Hebrew Wikipedia, “תהילים”, section “סוגי המזמורים”, my translation (I added notes in parentheses comparing with R’ Yehoshua ben Levi’s list in our sugya):

Types of Psalms

In the headings of the psalms, there are eight terms used for “psalm”, as follows:

• Mizmor (57 times - #4 in Talmud list):
  This word appears exclusively in the Book of Psalms, and even there, only in the headings of the psalms. Except at the beginning of Psalm 98, where the sole word is "mizmor," which is why Reish Lakish calls it "mizmor yatma" ("the orphan psalm") — the word almost always appears together with other descriptive terms.

• Shir (30 times - #5 in Talmud list):
  This designation almost always appears alongside another title, such as "Shir haMa'alot" ("A Song of Ascents"), "Mizmor Shir" ("A Psalm, a Song"), or "Shir Mizmor".

• Maskil (13 times - #3 in Talmud list):
  The word also appears within the body of Psalms, e.g., "Zamru Maskil" ("Sing praises with understanding"; Ps. 47:8). Outside of Psalms, some have identified this word in a similar sense in two other places:

  • "Therefore the maskil at that time will be silent, for it is an evil time" (Amos 5:13), meaning the poet will cease to sing because of trouble;

  • "The Levites, the maskilim, had good sense in the service of YHWH" — some interpret this as referring to Levites who sang songs of praise to God.

• מכתם - Miktam (6 times).

• Tefillah (תְּפִלָּה – 5 times - #8 in Talmud list).

• שיגיון - Shigayon (שִׁגָּיוֹן – once, in Psalm 7):
  This word appears in the singular only here, but appears in the plural in the introduction to the prayer of Habakkuk: "A prayer of Habakkuk the prophet, upon shigyonot" (Hab. 3:1), a prayer that strongly resembles Psalms in its style.

• Shirah (שִׁירָה – once, in Psalm 18 - #5 in Talmud list - “Shir”).

• Tehillah (תְּהִלָּה – once, in Psalm 145 - #7 in Talmud list).

In many of the Psalms, the superscription describes the musical style that accompanied its recitation:

למנצח - “For the leader”- (55 times - #1 in Talmud list).

This word always appears as the first word in the psalm’s heading. It appears only in the Book of Psalms, except for one instance in the Prayer of Habakkuk, where it appears at the beginning of the final inscription that concludes the prayer and the book: “For the leader, with my stringed instruments” (Habakkuk 3:19).

2. שם - i.e. the name of God - “Yah”.

3. בבת אחת - “at one time, at once” - “halelu”.

4. לכשנגאלין - in the messianic future.

5. לשון יחיד / רבים - i.e. based on the verb conjugation indicating singular or plural.

6. “The incipit of a text is the first few words of the text, [often] employed as an identifying label.“

On this in classical Hebrew literature, see there, and see my note in piece on the names of Talmud chapters, at my Academia page.

7. לעתיד לבא - i.e. in the messianic future.

8. תורגמן - the original speaker would speak in a low voice, and a louder disseminator would repeat the words for the audience to hear.

See my note in a previous piece on this role.