Pt1 Scripture, Logic, and Polemic: Proofs for the Principle of the Mass Resurrection of the Jewish Dead in the Future Messianic Era (Sanhedrin 90b-91a)
This is the first part of a two-part series. The outline for the series is below.
The belief in the mass Resurrection of the Jewish Dead (תחיית המתים) in the future messianic era is a fundamental tenet of Jewish thought, but how is it proven?
The Talmud presents an extended sugya on the topic, bringing textual proofs from the Bible, as well as logical arguments and analogies to defend the doctrine.
Rabbinic figures engage with both internal skeptics and external opponents, such as the Sadducees, Samaritans, and Romans, demonstrating the concept through scriptural exegesis and reasoned debate.
The sugya also (along the way) explores divine justice operating measure for measure—denying Resurrection results in exclusion from it—and links this to biblical narratives where disbelief leads to poetic justice.
Rabban Gamliel, R' Yoḥanan, and others offer scriptural evidence, sometimes countering alternative interpretations.
The discussion also extends beyond textual and strictly logical proof, as figures like R' Meir and R' Yishmael employ parables drawn from nature and craftsmanship to make Resurrection intuitively compelling.
“World-to-Come” (=afterlife) and Teḥiyyat ha-Metim ("Resurrection of the Dead")
See my earlier piece “Barred from the Afterlife: Heretics, Biblical Sinners, and Groups Denied a Share in the World-to-Come (Mishnah Sanhedrin 10:1-4)”, section “Which Jews Have a Share in the World-to-Come? Exceptions According to the Mishnah”, where I summarize:1
The Mishnah states that every Jew (ישראל), including sinners and those deserving of execution (discussed in detail in previous chapters of the tracate), have a share in the World-to-Come.
However, there are exceptions: those who deny that the Resurrection of the Dead (תחית המתים) is from the Torah (=Pentateuch),2 those who claim the Torah (=Pentateuch/Bible) is not from Heaven, and an epikoros.
See Wikipedia, “Universal resurrection”, section “Rabbinic Judaism and Samaritanism”:
There are three explicit examples in the Hebrew Bible of people being resurrected from the dead [...]
While there was no belief in personal afterlife with reward or punishment in Judaism before 200 BCE, in later Judaism and Samaritanism it is believed that the God of Israel will one day give teḥiyyat ha-metim ("life to the dead") to the righteous during the Messianic Age, and they will live forever in the world to come (Olam Ha-Ba) [...]
During the Second Temple period, Judaism developed a diversity of beliefs concerning the resurrection. The concept of resurrection of the physical body is found in 2 Maccabees, according to which it will happen through recreation of the flesh [...]
According to the British scholar in ancient Judaism Philip R. Davies, there is "little or no clear reference ... either to immortality or to resurrection from the dead" in the Dead Sea scrolls texts.
Both Josephus and the New Testament record that the Sadducees did not believe in an afterlife, but the sources vary on the beliefs of the Pharisees.
The New Testament claims that the Pharisees believed in the resurrection, but does not specify whether this included the flesh or not.
According to Josephus, who himself was a Pharisee, the Pharisees held that only the soul was immortal and the souls of good people will be reincarnated and "pass into other bodies", while "the souls of the wicked will suffer eternal punishment [...]
The resurrection of the dead is a core belief [according to] the Mishnah [...]
The belief in resurrection is expressed on all occasions in the Jewish liturgy; e.g., in the morning prayer Elohai Neshamah, in the Shemoneh 'Esreh and in the funeral services.
Jewish halakhic authority Maimonides set down his Thirteen Articles of Faith which have ever since been printed in all Rabbinic Siddur (prayer books).
Resurrection is the thirteenth principle: "I firmly believe that there will take place a revival of the dead at a time which will please the Creator, blessed be His name."
And see Hebrew Wikipedia, תחיית המתים, my translation:
In Judaism, belief in the resurrection of the dead is one of the [Maimonidean] thirteen principles of faith and a key component of its doctrine of reward and punishment (תורת הגמול) [...]
And ibid., section “Resurrection of the Dead in Talmudic Literature” (תחיית המתים בספרות חז"ל)”:
In the Mishnah, Tractate Sanhedrin, in the chapter Chelek, one who does not believe in the resurrection of the dead is listed among those who have no share in the World to Come. The explanation give: he denied the resurrection, therefore he will have no share in the resurrection.
The Great Assembly’s members (אנשי כנסת הגדולה) instituted a special blessing (ברכת גבורות) in the Amidah prayer (=Shemoneh Esreh) that concludes with the blessing, 'Who revives the dead'.
They also instituted a blessing for one who sees Jewish graves: 'And He will in the future raise you to eternal life in judgment. Blessed are You, Hashem, who revives the dead'.
In various places in the Talmud, prooftexts for the resurrection of the dead are brought from different verses in the Bible [...]
In Tractate Sanhedrin (=our sugya), disputes are recorded between the Sages and those who denied the belief in the resurrection of the dead [...]
The Sadducees and the Boethusians believed that there would be no resurrection of the dead.
Outline
Intro
“World-to-Come” (=afterlife) and teḥiyyat ha-metim ("resurrection of the dead")
The Passage - Scripture, Logic, and Polemic: Proofs for the Principle of Resurrection of the Dead (Sanhedrin 90b-91a)
Measure for Measure: The Consequence of Denying Resurrection (II Kings 7 verses 1-2, 20)
The principle of Measure for Measure is proven from the biblical episode where an officer doubted Elisha's prophecy regarding the end of a famine
Measure for Measure or Sage’s Curse?
R' Yoḥanan: Aaron will receive teruma in the future, implying his resurrection (Numbers 18:28)
R' Simai: God promised the land to the Patriarchs, meaning they must return to inherit it (Exodus 6:4)
Rabban Gamliel Debates With Heretics
"You shall lie with your fathers and arise" – interpreted as referring to resurrection (Deuteronomy 31:16)
"Your dead shall live, my corpse shall arise" (Isaiah 26:19)
"Moving gently the lips of those who sleep" – interpreted as the dead speaking again (Song of Songs 7:10)
God swore to give the land to the Patriarchs, not just their descendants (Deuteronomy 11:21)
"You who cleave to God are alive today" – implying future eternal life (Deuteronomy 4:4)
R' Yehoshua ben Ḥananya: "You shall lie with your fathers and arise" – interpreted as referring to resurrection (Deuteronomy 31:16)
R' Eliezer ben Yosei: "His iniquity shall be upon him" implies posthumous punishment, proving afterlife (Numbers 15:31)
R' Akiva and R' Yishmael debate whether "hikkaret tikkaret" refers to Karet (=spiritual excision) in this world or the next (Numbers 15:30)
Cleopatra’s Inquiry: Will the Dead Rise Clothed? R' Meir: Just as plants grow “clothed” after being sown, the dead will also sprout “clothed” (Psalms 72:16)
The Roman Emperor’s Daughter: If God can create man from nothing, He can certainly recreate him from dust
School of R' Yishmael: Parable of Glassmaking - If human breath can create and repair glass, God’s breath can restore life
R' Ami
Parable of the Collapsed Palace - If man can build from nothing, he can rebuild from existing material
Proofs From Nature
Analogy #1 - the Akhbar (possibly a shrew or field creature)
Analogy #2 - proliferation of snails After Rain
Geviha ben Pesisa: If those who never existed were created, it is all the more logical to revive the dead
Appendix 1 - Table summarizing the 13 proofs for resurrection cited in the sugya
Appendix 2 - The Prohibition Against Giving Teruma to an Am Ha’aretz Priest (Sanhedrin 90b sections # 3-6)
Teruma should be given only to righteous priests (Numbers 18:28)
One should not give teruma to a priest who is an am ha’aretz (II Chronicles 31:4)
Comparison to Feeding a Lion
Risk of Death (Leviticus 22:9)
Accumulating Sin (Leviticus 22:16)
Appendix 3 - Indeterminate Verse Division and Interpretive Ambiguity: Five Ambiguous Verses in the Pentateuch (Genesis 4:7, 49:7; Exodus 17:9, 25:34; Deuteronomy 31:16; Yoma 52a-b)
The Passage
Measure for Measure: The Consequence of Denying Resurrection (II Kings 7:1-2, 7:20)
One who denies the resurrection of the dead will not have a share in it, as divine justice operates measure-for-measure.3
וכל כך למה?
תנא:
הוא — כפר בתחיית המתים
לפיכך — לא יהיה לו חלק בתחיית המתים
שכל מדותיו של הקדוש ברוך הוא מדה כנגד מדה
And why is one punished to that extent for saying that there is no resurrection of the dead derived from the Torah?
The Sages taught in a baraita:
He — denied the resurrection of the dead;
therefore — he will not have a share in the resurrection of the dead,
as all measures dispensed by the Holy One, Blessed be He, to His people are dispensed measure for measure, i.e., the response is commensurate with the action.
The principle of Measure for Measure is proven from the biblical episode where an officer doubted Elisha's prophecy regarding the end of a famine
This principle is illustrated through the biblical episode in II Kings 7, verses 1-2,20,4 where an officer doubted Elisha's prophecy regarding the end of a famine.
He witnessed its fulfillment but was trampled at the city gate, precisely where he had expressed his disbelief.
דאמר רבי שמואל בר נחמני, אמר רבי יונתן:
מניין שכל מדותיו של הקדוש ברוך הוא מדה כנגד מדה?
שנאמר:
"ויאמר אלישע:
שמעו דבר ה' [וגו']
כעת מחר:
סאה סלת בשקל
וסאתים שערים בשקל
בשער שמרון
This is based on that which R' Shmuel bar Naḥmani says that R' Yonatan says:
From where is it derived that all measures dispensed by the Holy One, Blessed be He, are dispensed measure for measure?
It is derived from a verse, as it is stated concerning the siege of Jerusalem:
“And Elisha said:
Hear the word of YHWH:
Tomorrow at this time:
1 se’a of fine flour will be sold for 1 shekel
and 2 se’a of barley for 1 shekel
in the gate of Samaria” (II Kings 7:1).
וכתיב:
"ויען השליש
אשר המלך נשען על ידו
את איש האלהים ויאמר:
הנה ה' עושה ארבות בשמים?!
היהיה הדבר הזה?!
ויאמר:
הנך ראה בעיניך
ומשם לא תאכל
And it is written:
“And the officer
on whose hand the king leaned
answered the man of God and said:
Will YHWH make windows in heaven?!
Might this thing be?!
And he said:
You shall see it with your eyes,
but you shall not eat from there” (II Kings 7:2).
וכתיב:
"ויהי לו כן
וירמסו אתו העם בשער
וימת
And it is written:
“And it was for him so,
and the people trampled him in the gate,
and he died” (II Kings 7:20).
Measure for Measure or Sage’s Curse?
The Talmud questions whether the officer’s death resulted from the principle of middah keneged middah (punishment measure-for-measure) for denying Elisha’s prophecy, or whether it was simply due to Elisha’s curse. After all, Rav Yehuda quotes Rav stating that even an undeserved curse by a Sage is fulfilled.
The Talmud answers by analyzing the wording of the verse: if the Bible merely intended to record his death, it would have said “he was trampled and died”. But the addition “in the gate” implies that the location of his death carries meaning.5
ודילמא קללת אלישע גרמה ליה
דאמר רב יהודה, אמר רב:
קללת חכם
אפילו על חנם
היא באה
אם כן,
לכתוב קרא "וירמסוהו וימת"
מאי "בשער"?
על עסקי שער
The Gemara challenges: Perhaps it was the curse of Elisha that caused the officer to die in that manner, not the principle of punishment measure for measure for his lack of belief,
as Rav Yehuda says that Rav says:
The curse of a Sage,
even if baseless,
comes to be fulfilled?
This is all the more so true concerning the curse of Elisha, which was warranted.
The Gemara answers: If so,
let the verse write: And they trampled him and he died.
What does the term “in the gate” serve to teach?
It teaches that he died over matters relating to the gate [sha’ar]. It was for the cynical dismissal of the prophecy of Elisha that the officer voiced at the city gate that he was punished measure for measure and was trampled at the city gate.
R' Yoḥanan: Aaron will receive teruma in the future, implying his resurrection (Numbers 18:28)
R' Yoḥanan derives resurrection from the Torah (=Pentateuch), citing the verse commanding the giving of teruma to Aaron the priest, despite Aaron having already died.
This implies that Aaron will live again in the (messianic) future to receive teruma, proving resurrection from the Torah..
אמר רבי יוחנן:
מניין לתחיית המתים מן התורה?
שנאמר:
“ונתתם ממנו [את] תרומת ה' לאהרן הכהן”
וכי אהרן לעולם קיים?!
והלא לא נכנס לארץ ישראל שנותנין לו תרומה!
אלא מלמד
שעתיד לחיות
וישראל נותנין לו תרומה
מכאן לתחיית המתים מן התורה
[...]
R' Yoḥanan says:
From where is the resurrection of the dead derived from the Torah?
It is derived from this verse, as it is stated with regard to teruma of the tithe:
“And you shall give the teruma of YHWH to Aaron the priest” (Numbers 18:28).
And does Aaron exist forever so that one can fulfill the mitzva by giving him the teruma of the tithe?!
But is it not so that Aaron did not enter Eretz Yisrael, the only place where the people would give him teruma?
Rather, the verse teaches that
Aaron is destined to live in the future
and the Jewish people will give him teruma.
From here it is derived that the resurrection of the dead is from the Torah.
[...]
R' Simai: God promised the land to the Patriarchs, meaning they must return to inherit it (Exodus 6:4)
R' Simai cites God’s promise to give the land of Canaan to the Patriarchs:
Since they did not receive it in their lifetime, this implies they must return in the future to inherit it, proving resurrection from the Torah (=Pentateuch).
תניא
רבי סימאי אומר:
מניין לתחיית המתים מן התורה?
שנאמר:
“וגם הקמתי את בריתי אתם
לתת להם את ארץ כנען”
'לכם' לא נאמר
אלא 'להם'
מכאן לתחיית המתים מן התורה
It is taught in a baraita that
R' Simai says:
From where is resurrection of the dead derived from the Torah?
It is derived from a verse, as it is stated with regard to the Patriarchs:
“I have also established My covenant with them
to give to them the land of Canaan” (Exodus 6:4).
The phrase: To give to you the land of Canaan, is not stated, as the meaning of the verse is not that God fulfilled the covenant with the Patriarchs when he gave the land of Canaan to the children of Israel;
rather, it is stated: “To give to them the land of Canaan,” meaning to the Patriarchs themselves.
From here is it derived that the resurrection of the dead is from the Torah, as in the future the Patriarchs will come to life and inherit the land.
Rabban Gamliel Debates With Heretics
Rabban Gamliel debates heretics who deny resurrection, offering proofs from all three divisions of the Bible: Torah (=Pentateuch), Prophets, and Writings.
They dismiss each argument, until he cites Deuteronomy 11:21, where God promises to give the land to the Patriarchs themselves, not merely their descendants.
Some say his final proof was Deuteronomy 4:4, implying eternal life for those who cleave to God.
שאלו צדוקים את רבן גמליאל:
מניין שהקדוש ברוך הוא מחייה מתים?
אמר להם
מן התורה
ומן הנביאים
ומן הכתובים
ולא קיבלו ממנו
Heretics asked Rabban Gamliel:
From where is it derived that the Holy One, Blessed be He, revives the dead?
Rabban Gamliel said to them that this matter can be proven
from the Torah,
from the Prophets,
and from Writings,
but they did not accept the proofs from him.
"You shall lie with your fathers and arise" – interpreted as referring to resurrection (Deuteronomy 31:16)
מן התורה --
דכתיב:
“ויאמר ה' אל משה:
הנך שכב עם אבתיך
וקם”
אמרו לו:
ודילמא
“וקם העם הזה
וזנה”
The proof from the Torah is
as it is written:
“And YHWH said to Moses:
behold, you shall lie with your fathers
and arise” (Deuteronomy 31:16).
The heretics said to him:
But perhaps the verse should be divided in a different manner, and it should be read:
“Behold, you shall lie with your fathers, and this people will arise
and stray after the foreign gods of the land.”
"Your dead shall live, my corpse shall arise" (Isaiah 26:19)
מן הנביאים --
דכתיב:
“יחיו מתיך
נבלתי יקומון
הקיצו ורננו שכני עפר
כי טל אורת טלך
וארץ רפאים תפיל”
ודילמא מתים שהחיה יחזקאל
The proof from the Prophets is
as it is written:
“Your dead shall live,
my corpse shall arise.
Awake and sing, you that dwell in the dust,
for your dew is as the dew of vegetation,
and the land shall cast out the dead” (Isaiah 26:19).
The heretics said to him: But perhaps the prophecy was fulfilled with the dead that Ezekiel revived. No proof may be cited from that verse with regard to any future resurrection.
"Moving gently the lips of those who sleep" – interpreted as the dead speaking again (Song of Songs 7:10)
מן הכתובים --
דכתיב:
“וחכך כיין הטוב
הולך לדודי למישרים
דובב שפתי ישנים”
ודילמא רחושי מרחשן שפוותיה בעלמא
כרבי יוחנן
דאמר רבי יוחנן, משום רבי שמעון בן יהוצדק
כל מי שנאמרה הלכה בשמו בעולם הזה
שפתותיו דובבות בקבר
שנאמר: “דובב שפתי ישנים”
The proof from Writings is
as it is written:
“And your palate is like the best wine
that glides down smoothly for my beloved,
moving gently the lips of those that sleep” (Song of Songs 7:10), indicating that the dead will ultimately rise and speak.
The heretics said to him: But perhaps merely their lips will move,
in accordance with the opinion of R' Yoḥanan,
as R' Yoḥanan says in the name of R' Shimon ben Yehotzadak:
Anyone in whose name a halakha is stated in this world,
his lips move in the grave as if repeating the statement cited in his name,
as it is stated: “Moving gently the lips of those that sleep.”
No proof may be cited from that verse, as it is unrelated to resurrection.
God swore to give the land to the Patriarchs, not just their descendants (Deuteronomy 11:21)
עד שאמר להם מקרא זה:
'אשר נשבע ה' לאבתיכם לתת להם'
'לכם' לא נאמר
אלא 'להם'
מיכן לתחיית המתים מן התורה
This exchange continued until Rabban Gamliel stated to them this verse:
“That your days may be multiplied, and the days of your children, upon the land that YHWH took an oath to your forefathers to give them” (Deuteronomy 11:21).
The phrase: To give you, is not stated;
rather, it is stated: “To give them,” to the Patriarchs themselves, as in the future the Patriarchs will come to life and inherit the land.
From here resurrection of the dead is derived from the Torah.
"You who cleave to God are alive today" – implying future eternal life (Deuteronomy 4:4)
ויש אומרים מן המקרא הזה אמר להם:
“ואתם הדבקים בה' אלהיכם
חיים כלכם היום”
פשיטא דחיים כלכם היום!
אלא
אפילו ביום שכל העולם כולם מתים
אתם חיים
מה היום —
כולכם קיימין
אף לעולם הבא —
כולכם קיימין
And there are those who say that it is from this following verse that he said to them his ultimate proof:
“But you who cleave to YHWH your God
every one of you is alive this day” (Deuteronomy 4:4).
Wasn’t it obvious with regard to the children of Israel whom God was addressing, that “every one of you is alive this day”?
Rather, the meaning of the verse is:
Even on the day when everyone is dead,
you will live;
just as today —
every one of you is alive,
so too, in the World-to-Come —
every one of you will be alive.
And see my intro there, where I discuss the meaning of “World-to-Come” (=afterlife) in the Talmudic literature.
האומר אין תחית המתים מן התורה - literally: “one who says that Resurrection of the Dead is not from the Torah”.
I.e. one who asserts that the doctrine of the Resurrection of the Dead — meaning the future mass resurrection of the Jewish dead in the messianic era — lacks any foundation.
In contrast to its often loose/flexible usage elsewhere in Talmudic literature, the term 'Torah' in our sugya refers strictly to the Pentateuch.
Compare these general ideas (hyperlinked Wikipedia entries):
karma (especially ibid., section “Comparable concepts“, subsection “Judaism“)
divine providence (especially see “Divine providence in Judaism“)
divine retribution (especially ibid., section “Hebrew Bible“)
divine judgment (especially ibid., section “Judaism“)
Just-world phenomenon / fallacy
See Wikipedia, “2 Kings 7“, sections “Elisha’s prophecy of plenty (7:1–2)“ and “Elisha’s prophecy fulfilled (7:16–20)“.
And since his public mockery of Elisha’s prophecy occurred at the city gate, his death at that very place underscores a measure-for-measure punishment.