Pt2 Patterns in Animal and Plant Reproduction According to the Talmud, with Comparison With Modern Biological Scientific Knowledge (Bekhorot 7b-8a)

The relationship between the time of mating and the time of birthing across different species - 3 rules; Mating positions - 6 rules

This is the second part of a 3-part series. First part here.

Pt3 - The relationship between the time of mating and the time of birthing across different species - 3 rules

Comparison With Modern Biological Scientific Knowledge

This passage from the Talmud makes several claims about the timing of animal reproduction related to their mating habits and the time of birth. 

While there is some correlation in some species between activity patterns (diurnal¹ vs. nocturnal²) and reproductive behaviors, the rules described in the Talmud about mating and birth times are simplified (as I mentioned previously a few times), and do not universally apply across the animal kingdom.

Here's a review of these Talmudic rules based on contemporary biological knowledge:

1. Any species whose sexual intercourse occurs only during the daytime gives birth only during the daytime; this refers to a chicken (תשמישו ביום, יולד ביום -- תרנגול):

   1. Chickens (hens) indeed generally lay eggs³ in the morning or daytime. However, just to clarify, it should be noted that the timing of laying eggs isn't caused by the timing of mating. Chickens can mate at any time of the day, and egg-laying is more influenced by light cycles and hormonal factors rather than the specific timing of copulation.

2. Any species whose intercourse occurs only at night gives birth only at night; this refers to a bat (בלילה, יולד בלילה -- עטלף):

   1. Bats are nocturnal and indeed do typically mate and are active during night hours. However, the birth of bat pups does not necessarily adhere strictly to night hours. Bats can give birth during various times depending on the species and environmental conditions. Thus, while there's a tendency for nocturnal activity, it should be noted that it’s not a strict rule that they only give birth at night.

3. Any species whose intercourse occurs both during the daytime and at night gives birth both during the daytime and at night; this refers to humans and any creature similar to them (תשמישו בין ביום בין בלילה, יולד בין ביום בין בלילה -- אדם, וכל דדמי ליה):

   1. Humans, indeed, can have sexual intercourse and give birth at any time of the day or night. Human reproductive behavior and childbirth are not restricted to specific times of the day. This generalization might apply broadly to many mammals that do not have strict nocturnal or diurnal patterns for these activities.

1. כל שתשמישו ביום, יולד ביום; 

2. בלילה, יולד בלילה 

3. כל שתשמישו בין ביום בין בלילה, יולד בין ביום בין בלילה

1. תשמישו ביום, יולד ביום -- תרנגול 

2. בלילה, יולד בלילה -- עטלף 

3. תשמישו בין ביום בין בלילה, יולד בין ביום בין בלילה -- אדם, וכל דדמי ליה

[...]

The baraita continues to discuss matters of animal procreation: 

1. Any species whose sexual intercourse occurs only during the daytime gives birth only during the daytime; 

2. any species whose intercourse occurs only at night gives birth only at night; 

3. any species whose intercourse occurs both during the daytime and at night gives birth both during the daytime and at night.

The Gemara elaborates: 

1. The statement that any species whose intercourse occurs during the daytime gives birth during the daytime is referring to a chicken. 

2. The statement that any species whose intercourse occurs at night gives birth at night is referring to a bat. 

3. The statement that any species whose intercourse occurs both during the daytime and at night gives birth both during the daytime and at night is referring to a human and any creature that is similar to him.

[...]

Pt4 - Mating positions - 6 rules

Comparison With Modern Biological Scientific Knowledge

The claim from the Talmudic passage about interbreeding between different species based on similar mating behaviors and gestation periods needs clarification based on modern biological understanding:

1. Any two animals of different species whose manner of intercourse and time of gestation are identical can have offspring together and can raise the young of each other  (כל שתשמישו ועיבורו שוה, יולדים ומגדלים זה מזה): This is highly simplified, to the point of being wrong. The ability of two animals from different species to produce offspring is primarily determined by genetic compatibility and reproductive mechanisms. Similar manners of intercourse or gestation periods is simply correlative. In most cases, different species cannot interbreed successfully due to genetic, physiological, and chromosomal differences. Successful hybridization is rare, and typically occurs between closely related species (e.g., horses and donkeys producing mules)⁴. Animals from different species raising each other's young is also uncommon, and usually seen in domestic or controlled environments where animals are habituated or trained to accept other species' young. In the wild, this behavior is exceedingly rare, and not related in any significant way to similarities in manner of mating and time of gestation.⁵

2. Manner of intercourse (הכל משמשין פנים כנגד עורף, חוץ משלשה, שמשמשין פנים כנגד פנים):

   1. “All species engage in intercourse with the face of the male opposite the back of the neck of the female” (הכל משמשין פנים כנגד עורף). Steinzaltz explains: “Meaning that the male comes from behind the female”. Besides for the three exceptions that will be noted. This is basically correct.⁶

   2. Fish (דג): Most fish don’t engage in what might traditionally be considered as face-to-face intercourse (פנים כנגד פנים,- i.e. missionary position). Many fish species reproduce through external fertilization, where females release eggs into the water and males fertilize them externally. There is no direct physical mating interaction like in mammals.⁷ But it’s possible that the Talmud knew this, and considers it “face to face”, as opposed to “face to back” of most animals.

   3. Humans (אדם): It is true that humans can and do engage in face-to-face intercourse, which is somewhat unique among animals, but not exclusive.⁸

   4. Snakes (נחש): Snakes do not mate face-to-face, as opposed to face-to-back, per se. However, they do seem to typically twist their bodies together, so it can be reasonably claimed to be considered closer to face-to-face mating than the mating of the typical animal. 

   5. Camels (גמל): The claim that camels engage in intercourse back to back (אחור כנגד אחור) with their mate is incorrect. The male camel approaches from behind the female, as with almost all animals (as mentioned).⁹

כל שתשמישו ועיבורו שוה, יולדים ומגדלים זה מזה 

הכל משמשין פנים כנגד עורף, חוץ משלשה, שמשמשין פנים כנגד פנים, ואלו הן: 

1. דג 

2. ואדם 

3. ונחש

[…]

תנא: גמל -- אחור כנגד אחור:

The baraita continues: 

Any two animals of different species whose manner of intercourse and time of gestation are identical can have offspring together and can raise, i.e., nurse, the young of each other. 

With regard to the manner of intercourse, all species engage in intercourse with the face of the male opposite the back of the neck of the female, meaning that the male comes from behind the female, except for three species that engage in intercourse face-to-face, and they are these: 

1. Fish, 

2. and humans, 

3. and the snake.

[…]

A tanna taught: A camel engages in intercourse back to back with its mate.

“Diurnality is a form of plant and animal behavior characterized by activity during daytime, with a period of sleeping or other inactivity at night. The common adjective used for daytime activity is "diurnal". “

1. (Wikipedia, “Diurnality“)

“Nocturnality is a behavior in some non-human animals characterized by being active during the night and sleeping during the day. The common adjective is "nocturnal", versus diurnal meaning the opposite.”

2. (Wikipedia, “Nocturnality”)

3. Laying eggs is the most likely meaning of “giving birth” in this context, as opposed to hatching.

4. For more examples, see Wikipedia, “List of genetic hybrids“.

5. These behaviors are known as interspecies adoptions or interspecific feeding.

One instance of interspecific feeding that occurs in the wild is among birds, where adults of one species may feed the young of another. See Wikipedia, “Interspecific feeding“.

Interspecies families can form where members of different species display care for each other in a manner akin to a family unit. The formation of such families is frequently facilitated by human influence in domesticated environments​. See Wikipedia, “Interspecies family“.

Compare also Wikipedia, “Interspecies friendship“.

6. See Animal sexual behaviour - Wikipedia > “Mating behaviour”:

“Mammals mate by vaginal copulation. To achieve this, the male usually mounts the female from behind [...]

Amongst the land mammals, other than humans, only bonobos mate in a face-to-face position, as the females' anatomy seems to reflect [...]

Some sea mammals copulate in a belly-to-belly position.”

7. For example, see External fertilization - Wikipedia > “Fish”:

“Salmon, cod, trout, and char are all examples of the fish that externally fertilize. The females release roe (an egg mass) and the males release milt (seminal fluid containing sperm) into the water, where they diffuse together and fertilize.”

8. See the quote from Animal sexual behaviour - Wikipedia > “Mating behaviour”, in previous footnote.

9. However, interestingly:

“Camelids are the only ungulates [=large mammals with hooves] to mate in a sitting position”

(Camel - Wikipedia > “Biology”).

Can this be relevant for what the Talmud intends here?