From Azubah to Zohar: Reading Miriam and Caleb in the Genealogies of the Book of Chronicles (Sotah 12a)

Part of a series in honor of the upcoming holiday of Passover on the extended sugya in Sotah 11a-12b on the beginning of the Book of Exodus. Previous installments here, here, here, and here.

The Book of Chronicle’s extensive lists of genealogies rarely attract much attention, yet rabbinic tradition found in them surprising layers of meaning. A striking example is the Talmudic reinterpretation of verses in I Chronicles chapters 2 and 4, where the genealogy of Caleb is discussed. Much of it is reinterpreted as a veiled tribute to Miriam, Moses’ sister.¹

See Wikipedia, “Caleb”:

Caleb ([...] Hebrew: כָּלֵב [...] Modern Israeli Hebrew: Kalév [...]) is a figure who appears in the Hebrew Bible as a representative of the Tribe of Judah during the Israelites' journey to the Promised Land [...]

According to Numbers 13, Caleb, the son of Jephunneh, was one of the Twelve Spies sent by Moses into Canaan [...]

Caleb's report balanced the appeal of the land and its fruits with the challenge of making a conquest.

Verse 30 of chapter 13 reads "And Caleb stilled the people toward Moses, and said: 'We should go up at once, and possess it; for we are well able to overcome it.'"

Caleb and Joshua said the people should trust God and go into the land; the other ten spies, being fearful and rebellious, argued that conquering the land was impossible.

They spread doubt and fear among all the people, who again wished to be back in Egypt (chapter 14 v 1-4)

Two Biblical Calebs?

See Wikipedia, ibid.:

Caleb, son of Jephunneh from the tribe of Judah (Book of Numbers, Numbers 13:6), is not to be confused with Caleb, great-grandson of Judah through Tamar (1 Chronicles 2:3–9).

This other Caleb was the son of Hezron, and his wife was Azubah (1 Chronicles 2:18,19).

Meaning, modern scholars following the historical-critical (=pshat) method interpet that there are two different Calebs:

• Caleb ben Jephunneh, the famous spy and associate of Joshua.

• Caleb ben Hezron, mentioned in Chronicles with extensive genealogical detail.

In contrast, the Talmud and most traditional commentators identify these as the same person.²

The Talmud’s Wordplays

In Sotah 12a, the sages identify Azubah as Miriam and use a series of wordplays and reinterpretations to construct a dramatic narrative of transformation—from illness and social rejection to beauty and desire.

In this reading, Azubah ("abandoned") is not only Miriam's alias but a commentary on her early marginalization. Caleb's marriage to her is praised as an act of righteousness, “for the sake of Heaven” (לשם שמים), and he is described in elevated metaphorical terms that emphasize his moral heroism.

Even the children listed in the genealogies are not seen as literal offspring, but as symbolic titles reflecting Caleb’s virtues and Miriam’s transformation. The rabbis also interpret the seemingly two wives “Helah” and “Naarah” as allusions to the two main stages of Miriam’s life: first, a period of sickness; and later, one of renewed youthfulness, vitality, and beauty.

The Verses

I Chronicles 2:18-20

I_Chronicles.2.18-20:

וכלב בן־חצרון הוליד

1. את־עזובה אשה

2. ואת־יריעות

ואלה בניה:

1. ישר

2. ושובב

3. וארדון

ותמת עזובה

ויקח־לו כלב את־אפרת

ותלד לו את־חור

וחור הוליד את־אורי

ואורי הוליד את־בצלאל

Caleb son of Hezron had children

1. by his wife Azubah,

2. and by Jerioth;

these were her sons:

1. Jesher,

2. Shobab,

3. and Ardon.

When Azubah died,

Caleb married Ephrath,

who bore him Hur.

Hur begot Uri,

and Uri begot Bezalel.

I Chronicles 4:5-7

I_Chronicles.4.5-7:

ולאשחור אבי תקוע היו שתי נשים:

1. חלאה

2. ונערה

ותלד לו נערה

1. את־אחזם

2. ואת־חפר

3. ואת־תימני

4. ואת־האחשתרי

אלה בני נערה

ובני חלאה:

1. צרת

2. (יצחר) [וצחר]

3. ואתנן

Ashhur the father of Tekoa had two wives:

1. Helah

2. and Naarah;

Naarah bore him:

1. Ahuzam,

2. Hepher,

3. Temeni,

4. and Ahashtari.

These were the sons of Naarah.

The sons of Helah:

1. Zereth,

2. Zohar,

3. and Ethnan.

Outline

1. Two Biblical Calebs?

2. The Talmud’s Wordplays

3. The Verses

   1. I Chronicles 2:18-19

   2. I Chronicles 4:5-7

The Passage

1. Azubah as Miriam: Abandoned at First (I Chronicles 2:18)

2. Marriage for the Sake of Heaven: “He Begot” as Metaphor (I Chronicles 2:18)

3. Jerioth: A Reflection of Miriam's Pallor (I Chronicles 2:18)

4. Reinterpreting Her Sons’ Names as Titles for Caleb (I Chronicles 2:18)

5. Ashhur and Tekoa: More Epithets for Caleb (I Chronicles 4:5)

6. One Woman, Two Phases: Helah and Naarah as Miriam (I Chronicles 4:5)

7. Beauty Transformed: From Affliction to Desire (I Chronicles 4:5)

Appendix 1 - Tables Summarizing

1. Table of the Thirteen Names, Identifications, and the Talmudic Interpretations

2. Pivot Table of the Thirteen Names by Person Associated: Caleb or Miriam

Appendix 2 - The Curious Case of Caleb: The Complexity of Biblical Genealogy

1. Visualization illustrating the complex biblical genealogy surrounding Caleb

Appendix 3 – Women Identified in the Talmud for Their Provocative Sexual Allure

1. The story of Rava and the Femme Fatale Ḥoma (Ketubot 65a)

2. Biblical Women of Exceptional Sexual Appeal: Rahab, Yael, Abigail, and Michal (Megillah 15a)

The Passage

Sotah.12a.2-7

Azubah as Miriam: Abandoned at First (I Chronicles 2:18)

The Talmud identifies Azubah, Caleb’s wife, as Miriam.

She was called "Azubah" because everyone had “forsaken her”.³

״עזובה״ —

זו מרים,

ולמה נקרא שמה עזובה?

שהכל עזבוה מתחילתה.

The verse states: “And Caleb, the son of Hezron, begot children of Azubah his wife, and of Jerioth, and these were her sons: Jesher, and Shobab, and Ardon” (I Chronicles 2:18).

The Gemara analyzes the verse: The verse refers to the wife of Caleb by the name Azubah.

The Sages teach that this is Miriam.

And why is she called Azubah?

As everyone initially abandoned her [azavuha] and did not want to marry her because she was sickly and unattractive.

Marriage for the Sake of Heaven: “He Begot” as Metaphor (I Chronicles 2:18)

The verse says Caleb “begot” (הוליד) children with Azubah.

R' Yoḥanan finds this verb usage unusual,⁴ and therefore interprets that he merely married her, explaining that when a man marries a woman for purely righteous reasons, Scripture credits him as if he gave birth to her.

״הוליד״ —

והלא מינסב הוה נסיב לה!

אמר רבי יוחנן:

כל הנושא אשה לשם שמים —

מעלה עליו הכתוב כאילו ילדה.

The verse additionally states: “And Caleb, the son of Hezron, begot children [holid] of Azubah his wife” (I Chronicles 2:18).

The Gemara asks: Why use the term “holid,” begot children? But doesn’t this verse state that he married her?

R' Yoḥanan says: This teaches us that

with regard to anyone who marries a woman for the sake of Heaven, as he married her due to her righteousness without concern for her appearance,

the verse ascribes him credit as if he gave birth to her.

Jerioth: A Reflection of Miriam's Pallor (I Chronicles 2:18)

The verse also refers to Miriam as “Jerioth,” which the Talmud interprets as a reference to her pale appearance—her face resembled (pale) “curtains” (יריעות).

״יריעות״ —

שהיו פניה דומין ליריעות.

The same verse refers to Miriam additionally as Jerioth,

which the Gemara explains was appropriate, for her face was like extremely pallid curtains [yeriot].

Reinterpreting Her Sons’ Names as Titles for Caleb (I Chronicles 2:18)

The names Jesher, Shobab, and Ardon are reinterpreted not as Miriam’s literal sons, but as metaphoric descriptions of Caleb’s virtues:⁵

1. Jesher (ישר) means he “straightened” himself (morally)

2. Shobab (שובב), that he “overcame” (שיבב) his inclination (יצרו)

3. Ardon (ארדון), that he “ruled” (רדה) over his inclination. An alternate interpretation links Ardon to Miriam’s transformation into “rose”-like beauty (ורד - “vered”).

״ואלה בניה״ —

אל תקרי בניה, אלא ״בוניה״,

1. ״ישר״ — שישר את עצמו.

2. ״שובב״ — ששיבב את יצרו,

3. ״וארדון״ —

   1. שרדה את יצרו,

   2. ואיכא דאמרי: על שהיו פניה דומין לורד.

The verse continues: “And these were her sons [vaneha].”

The Gemara explains: Do not read it as vaneha, her sons; rather, read it as boneha, her builders. In other words, the rest of the names in the verse are not the names of her children, but rather appellations for her husband, whose marriage to her built her, as it were.

1. The first appellation for Caleb, “Jesher,” is referring to his actions, as he set himself straight [yisher] and did not join in the counsel of the spies.

2. The second appellation, “Shobab,” is referring to the fact that he broke [sibbev] his evil inclination by rebelling against the other spies.

3. The third appellation, “and Ardon [veArdon],” is referring to the fact that

   1. he ruled [rada] over his evil inclination.

   2. And some say: Because the face of his wife Miriam became beautiful like a rose [vered] after they were married, she was also called Vardon, due to her rose-like complexion.

Ashhur and Tekoa: More Epithets for Caleb (I Chronicles 4:5)

In a later verse, Caleb is referred to as:

1. Ashhur (אשחור), as his face was “blackened” (הושחרו) due to fasting⁶

2. Avi (אבי),⁷ for his nurturing role toward Miriam “like a father” (אב)

3. Tekoa (תקוע), for “fixing (תקע) his heart” on God⁸

״ולאשחור אבי תקוע היו שתי נשים:

1. חלאה

2. ונערה״.

״אשחור״ —

זה כלב,

ולמה נקרא שמו ״אשחור״?

שהושחרו פניו בתעניות.

״אבי״ —

שנעשה לה כאב,

״תקוע״ —

שתקע את לבו לאביו שבשמים.

The Gemara interprets an additional verse as referring to Caleb. It is stated: “And Ashhur the father of Tekoa had two wives:

Helah and Naarah” (I Chronicles 4:5).

“Ashhur”

is Caleb.

And why was he called Ashhur?

Because his face became blackened [husheḥaru] from the extensive fasts that he accepted upon himself so that he would not be entrapped by the counsel of the spies.

“The father of”

is also referring to Caleb, as he became like a father to his wife.

The next word in the verse, “Tekoa,”

is an additional reference to Caleb, as he attached [taka] his heart to his Father in Heaven.

One Woman, Two Phases: Helah and Naarah as Miriam (I Chronicles 4:5)

The “two wives” Helah and Naarah mentioned in the verse are in fact both Miriam, described at two stages of life: initially “sickly” (Helah, חלאה) and later “youthful”.⁹

״היו שתי נשים״ —

נעשה מרים כשתי נשים.

1. "חלאה

2. ונערה״ —

לא חלאה ונערה הואי,

אלא

בתחילה חלאה,

ולבסוף נערה.

The phrase in the verse “had two wives”

actually means it is as if Miriam became like two wives, because she changed over the course of time.

And therefore the two names written in the verse: “Helah and Naarah,”

were not two separate women, Helah and Naarah.

Rather,

initially Miriam was sickly [ḥela] and forlorn,

and ultimately she was healthy and beautiful like a young woman [na’ara].

Beauty Transformed: From Affliction to Desire (I Chronicles 4:5)

Miriam’s transformed beauty is further highlighted through wordplay on the names of her “children”:

1. Tzeret (צרת)—now a “rival woman” (צרה - “tzara”) to other women (due to their new-found jealousy)

2. Zohar (צהר)—her face shone like midday¹⁰

3. Ethnan (אתנן)—men would bring gifts (אתנן - “etnan”) to their own wives.¹¹

״ובני חלאה:

1. צרת

2. וצהר

3. ואתנן״.

1. ״צרת״ — שנעשית צרה לחברותיה.

2. ״צהר״ — שהיו פניה דומין כצהרים,

3. ״אתנן״ — שכל הרואה אותה מוליך אתנן לאשתו.

The Gemara expounds the following verse as referring to Miriam: “And the children of Helah were

1. Zereth [Tzeret]

2. and Zohar

3. and Ethnan” (I Chronicles 4:7).

1. She was now called “Tzeret,” for she became so beautiful that she was like a rival [tzara] to other women, as they were jealous of her beauty.

2. She is called “Zohar,” as her face shined like the sun does at noon [tzohorayim].

3. She is called “Ethnan,” as any man that saw her would be aroused so much that he would bring a gift [etnan] to his wife to entice her.

Appendix 1 - Tables Summarizing

Table of the Thirteen Names, Identifications, and the Talmudic Interpretations

Pivot Table of the Thirteen Names by Person Associated: Caleb or Miriam

Appendix 2 - The Curious Case of Caleb: The Complexity of Biblical Genealogy

See Hebrew Wikipedia, “כלב בן יפונה”, section “כלב בן יפונה וכלב בן חצרון”, my translation:

In the book of I Chronicles, chapter 2, Caleb son of Hezron, a descendant of the tribe of Judah who is also associated with Hebron and its surroundings, is mentioned.

The Midrash connects Caleb son of Jephunneh with Caleb son of Hezron and claims that the name "Jephunneh" (יפונה - literally: “he turned aside”) reflects Caleb’s character—he “turned away” (פנה) from the counsel of the spies.¹²

According to this identification, Caleb married Azubah, and they had two daughters—Azubah-Isha and Jerioth—and three sons: Jesher, Shobab, and Ardon. After Azubah's death, Caleb married Ephrath, who, according to the Midrash, is Miriam the sister of Moses. Their son was Hur, and Hur's grandson was Bezalel son of Uri, one of the builders of the Tabernacle.

If this identification is correct, then Caleb—who was about 40 years old at the time of the Exodus—was the great-grandfather of Bezalel, who was already an adult at that time. The Midrash calculates that for this to be possible, Caleb, Hur, and Uri would have had to father children while still very young.

Achsah, the daughter of Caleb son of Jephunneh the Kenizzite, is mentioned in Joshua chapter 15 and Judges chapter 1. Caleb son of Jephunneh of the tribe of Judah had difficulty conquering the city of Kiriath-Sepher, and he offered his daughter Achsah as a wife to the man who would succeed in conquering it. The one who won the prize was his younger brother, Othniel son of Kenaz.

However, in I Chronicles Achsah is listed as the daughter of Caleb son of Hezron (I Chronicles 2:49), and not in the verses referring to Caleb son of Jephunneh (I Chronicles 4:15).

If one does not accept the interpretation that they are the same person, then one must conclude that the two "Calebs" each had a daughter named Achsah.¹³

Ibn Ezra writes: “According to the plain meaning (על דרך הפשט), Caleb son of Jephunneh is not Caleb son of Hezron—based on clear proofs (ראיות גמורות).”

Caleb son of Jephunneh is said to have come from "Kenaz," one of the clans of the Kenites who joined the tribe of Judah and settled in Hebron and its surroundings. His brother Othniel is also referred to in the Bible as "son of Kenaz."

In contrast, Hezron was the son of Perez son of Judah, and thus a direct descendant of the patriarch of the tribe.

The Pshat explanation resolves the timeline problem by separating the two Calebs into different historical periods:

According to this interpretation:

1. Caleb son of Hezron lived much earlier in Israelite history, perhaps several generations before the Exodus. This earlier Caleb would be the ancestor of Bezalel through Hur and Uri. As a direct descendant of Judah through Perez and Hezron, this Caleb would belong to the early genealogical record of the tribe.

2. Caleb son of Jephunneh the Kenizzite would be the later Caleb who was 40 years old during the Exodus and was one of the Twelve Spies. This Caleb comes from the Kenizzite people who joined the tribe of Judah, rather than being from Judah's direct lineage.

By treating these as two distinct individuals who lived generations apart, the chronological impossibility disappears. The later Caleb (son of Jephunneh) wouldn't need to be the great-grandfather of Bezalel, and the earlier Caleb (son of Hezron) would have lived long enough before the Exodus for his great-grandson Bezalel to be an adult by that time.

This solution is common in biblical genealogy studies. When faced with timeline inconsistencies, scholars often recognize that multiple individuals with the same name across different generations may have been conflated in later traditions.

Visualization illustrating the complex biblical genealogy surrounding Caleb

https://claude.site/artifacts/dc87d803-d353-4950-8d53-48f9a459ca54

The visualization above illustrates the two possible interpretations of the biblical genealogy surrounding Caleb as described in Hebrew Wikipedia. The diagram shows:

Left Side - Midrashic Interpretation:

• Shows that according to the Midrash, Caleb son of Jephunneh and Caleb son of Hezron were the same person: He was one of the Twelve Spies, and the great-grandfather of Bezalel.

• Traces his lineage from Judah through Perez and Hezron

• Shows his marriages to Azubah and later to Ephrath (both identified as in fact a single person: Miriam)

• Lists his children from both marriages

• Shows the descendant line through Hur and Uri to Bezalel (who built the Tabernacle)

• Notes the timeline issue: How could Bezalel (Caleb's great-grandson) be an adult during the Exodus if Caleb was only 40?

Right Side - Straightforward (Pshat) Reading:

• Shows the view that there were two different men named Caleb

• Caleb son of Hezron from the direct lineage of Judah; he was the great-grandfather of Bezalel.

• Caleb son of Jephunneh the Kenizzite, from the Kenite tribes that joined Judah. He was one of the Twelve Spies.

• Shows that both had daughters named Achsah

• Notes Othniel who married Achsah after conquering Kiryat Sefer

Appendix 3 – Women Identified in the Talmud for Their Provocative Sexual Allure

The story of Rava and Ḥoma (Ketubot 65a)

As Ḥoma lifts her arm to demonstrate the large size of the cups (of wine that her deceased husband Abaye had provided her), her upper arm (דרעא) becomes uncovered, causing Rava to feel lustful.

Rava goes home and propositions (תבעה) his wife to have sex.¹⁴

אמרה ליה:

חיי דמר!

דהוה משקי לי בשופרזי כי האי.

בהדי דקא מחויא ליה

איגלי דרעא,

נפל נהורא בבי דינא.

קם רבא,

על לביתיה,

תבעה לבת רב חסדא.

She said to him:

By the Master’s life! this is not correct.

In fact, he would give me wine to drink in cups (שופרזי) as large as this. She gestured with her hands to show how large the cups were.

While she was showing him the size of the cups,

her arm became uncovered,

and she was so beautiful that it was as though a light had shined in the courtroom.

Rava arose,

went home,

and requested (תבעה) intercourse from his wife, the daughter of Rav Ḥisda.

Rava’s wife, the daughter of Rav Ḥisda, suspects something. After Rava confirms her suspicions and tells her what happened, she drives Ḥoma out of the city, accusing her of (potentially) endangering another (potential) husband after already losing three.

אמרה ליה בת רב חסדא: מאן הוי האידנא בבי דינא?

אמר לה: חומא דביתהו דאביי.

נפקא אבתרה,

מחתא לה בקולפי דשידא,

עד דאפקה לה מכולי מחוזא.

אמרה לה:

קטלת ליך תלתא,

ואתת למיקטל אחרינא?!

The daughter of Rav Ḥisda said to him: Who was just now in the courtroom? Noticing his unusual behavior, she suspected that there must have been a woman in the court.

He said to her: Ḥoma, Abaye’s wife, was there.

Upon hearing this, Rava’s wife went after Ḥoma

and struck her with the lock (קולפי) of a chest (שידא)

until she drove her out of the entire city of Meḥoza,

saying to her:

You have already killed three men, as Abaye was your third husband,

and now you come to kill another one, my husband Rava?! Since you showed him your beauty, he will want to marry you.

Biblical Women of Exceptional Sexual Appeal: Rahab, Yael, Abigail, and Michal (Megillah 15a)

Megillah.15a.8

Certain biblical women had extraordinary allure—Rahab by name alone, Yael by her voice, Abigail by remembering (זכירתה) her, and Michal by her appearance (ראייתה).

תנו רבנן:

1. רחב — בשמה זינתה,

2. יעל — בקולה,

3. אביגיל — בזכירתה,

4. מיכל בת שאול — בראייתה.

The Sages taught in a baraita:

1. Rahab aroused impure thoughts by her name, i.e., the mere mention of her name would inspire lust for her;

2. Yael, by her voice;

3. Abigail, by remembering her;

4. Michal, the daughter of Saul, by her appearance.

R' Yitzḥak goes so far as to say that simply saying Rahab’s name causes one to “immediately ejaculate (ניקרי)".

It’s then clarified that this only applies to someone who had met her in person.¹⁵

אמר רבי יצחק:

כל האומר ״רחב״ ״רחב״ —

מיד ניקרי.

אמר ליה רב נחמן:

אנא אמינא ״רחב״ ״רחב״

ולא איכפת לי!

אמר ליה:

כי קאמינא

ביודעה ובמכירה

Similarly, R' Yitzḥak said:

Anyone who says Rahab, Rahab,

immediately experiences a seminal emission due to the arousal of desire caused by Rahab’s great beauty.

Rav Naḥman said to him:

I say: Rahab, Rahab,

and it does not affect me.

R' Yitzchak said to Rav Naḥman:

When I said this,

I was specifically referring to one who knows her personally and recognizes her beauty. Only for one who has met Rahab in person is the mere mention of her name capable of arousing lust.

1. See a bit earlier in the sugya where this first comes up, quoted in my previous piece here, section “The Midwives’ Reward: Houses of Priesthood, Levites, or Royalty (Exodus 1:21; I Chronicles 2:19, I Samuel 17:12)”:

דוד נמי ממרים קאתי,

דכתיב:

״ותמת עזובה אשת כלב

ויקח לו כלב את אפרת

ותלד לו את חור״.

וכתיב: ״ודוד בן איש אפרתי וגו׳״.

David also comes from Miriam,

as it is written:

“And Azubah, the wife of Caleb, died,

and Caleb took to him Ephrath,

who bore him Hur” (I Chronicles 2:19)

and, as will be explained further, Ephrath is Miriam.

And it is written: “David was the son of that Ephrathite of Bethlehem in Judah” (I Samuel 17:12). Therefore, he was a descendant of Miriam.

2. On this very common tendency and trope in the Talmud, see my piece at my Academia page, ““Why Was He Called Thus?”: An Anthology of Talmudic Passages Relating to Explanations of Biblical Names, Unification of Ostensibly Separate Biblical Personalities, and Etymologies of Biblical Words”.

See my Appendix 2 at the end of this piece where I discuss these two interpretations (traditional vs. Pshat) of Caleb at length.

3. עזבוה - due to her sickly and unattractive appearance, as described in the forthcoming sections.

4. The Talmud is pointing out a linguistic oddity in a verse that says: "Caleb holid (הוליד) Azubah his wife." The verb holid typically means “to beget” or “to father a child”; in the pattern “Father A holid Son B” — in other words, a man begets a child, not a spouse.

But in this case, the direct object of holid is not a child, but Azubah his wife. That creates a grammatical and conceptual problem: a man doesn’t "beget" his wife — she’s not his child — he marries her.

So the Talmud raises the question: "והלא מינסב הוה נסיב לה" - "But doesn't this verse state that he married her?" The Talmud is pointing out that the expected verb should relate to marriage, not procreation, when referring to one's wife.

R’ Yochanan's interpretation solves this linguistic anomaly by reframing "holid" metaphorically, suggesting that righteous marriage creates such profound spiritual transformation that it's comparable to giving birth to a new spiritual reality.

However, the straightforward peshat (plain-sense) reading of the verse is that the word “holid” (הוליד) doesn’t mean “he begot Azubah” in the literal sense of fathering her as a child. Rather, it’s an elliptical usage meaning that he had children through Azubah, his wife.

So even though the syntax says “he holid Azubah his wife,” the intended meaning is:

“He fathered [children through] Azubah, his wife.”

This kind of elliptical phrasing is not common, but it can be found in Biblical Hebrew, where a verb is used with a direct object to imply something that’s understood from context.

Compare the verb “marry” in English, which can also lead to confusion depending on context, somewhat analogous to the Hebrew holid issue:

Example: “The priest married John and Mary.”

• Literal reading: Did the priest marry Mary? (i.e., take her as his wife?)

• No — here, “married” means officiated at their wedding. See Oxford English Dictionary, “marry”, section “I. To take, join, or give in marriage“, sense # 7b: “transitive. Of a priest, minister, registrar, etc.: to officiate at the marriage of.“

• The verb “marry” normally takes a spouse as an object:

  • “John married Mary” → means they became husband and wife.

• But “The priest married Mary” (without John mentioned) sounds like he became her husband.

So when the object of the verb is ambiguous, we have to interpret it based on context and conventions (=pragmatics), not just grammar.

This is parallel to the Talmud’s issue with holid (הוליד):

• Normally: “He holid [a child]” → clear meaning.

• But “He holid Azubah his wife” sounds like she is the one he fathered.

• We have to reinterpret: “He begot [children through] Azubah, his wife.”

In both cases, the verb’s usual object is missing or replaced by a different kind of noun, and that causes confusion — unless we mentally fill in the gap based on idiom or usage.

5. Alluding to his not joining the badmouthing of Eretz Yisrael with the rest of the Twelve Spies, see my intro.

6. Again, alluding to his not joining in on the slander of the Spies; he fasted to have the spiritual courage to go against the majority of the Spies.

“Blackening face” is a common Talmudic idiom for suffering, austerity, or devoted labor—especially in moral, spiritual, or intellectual contexts.

See for example my recent piece here, section “Alternative Explanations of Ahasuerus' Name: Shmuel - Jews suffered greatly under Ahasuerus, turning their faces black like a pot's bottom; R' Yoḥanan - cries of woe, R' Ḥanina - he impoverished everyone through heavy taxation (Esther 10:1)“:

ושמואל אמר:

שהושחרו פניהם של ישראל בימיו

כשולי קדרה.

And Shmuel said:

The name Ahasuerus should be understood in the sense of black [shaḥor], as

the face of the Jewish people was blackened (הושחרו) in his days

like the bottom of a pot.

And see the the Talmudic line quoted in my note here, on section “The Primacy of Torah Study Over Public Service (Esther 10:3): Mordecai’s Status Among the Jews; The Consequence of Public Service on Mordecai’s Stature (Ezra 2:2; Nehemiah 7:7)“:

״שחורות כעורב״:

במי אתה מוצאן

[…]

רבה אמר: במי שמשחיר פניו עליהן כעורב.

Black [sheḥorot] as a raven [orev] means:

In whom do you find the words of Torah?

[…]

Rabba said: In him who, for the Torah’s sake, blackens his face like a raven, i.e., who fasts and deprives himself for the sake of Torah study.

The Talmudic idiom of blackening one’s face in these passages can be summarized as follows:

• Blackened as degraded: Suffering under Ahasuerus.

• Blackened as ascetic: Fasting for Torah or wisdom.

• Blackened as authentic: Soot and toil marking one’s devotion.

We find a shared semiotics of darkness: an anti-glamour aesthetic that equates external blackness with internal virtue—what the Stoics call kalos kagathos and the Rabbis call talmid ḥakham.

Asceticism and Intellectual Labor: The Ideal of the Dusty Scholar

The cited Talmudic idiom—“blackens his face like a raven” (משחיר פניו עליהן כעורב)—depicts the scholar as someone who willingly subjects his body to hardship (fasting, sleeplessness, lack of hygiene) for the sake of Torah study. This is a moralized portrait of the self-effacing sage, proud of his spiritual labor despite its physical toll.

Cynic philosophers like Diogenes were notorious for flaunting their disheveled, dirty appearance as a badge of wisdom and rejection of materialism.

Thus, the blackened face becomes a physiognomic metaphor for intellectual or spiritual authenticity in both traditions.

Suffering and Oppression: The Burned and Blackened Face

Shmuel’s midrashic gloss on Ahasuerus—“their faces were blackened like a pot’s bottom”—evokes the image of national affliction, suffering, and degradation. The visual simile (כשולי קדרה) connotes soot, scorch marks, and hard living.

Color Symbolism and Moral Association: Black as Intensity

This resonates with Rabba’s comment: to acquire Torah is to blacken oneself like the raven.

Contrast this with the extended Talmudic discussion on R’ Yehuda’s distinctive complexion in my piece, “Fingers, Forks, and Faces: Tales of R' Yehuda (Nedarim 49b-50a)”. I summarize there in section “R' Yehuda's unusual complexion“:

The Talmud recounts three stories of people commenting on R' Yehuda's unusual complexion:

1. R' Tarfon commented that his face was “bright” (צהובין)

2. A Roman matrona commented that he looked drunk (רוי)

3. A heretic (מינא) commented that his complexion looked like that of a usurer (מלוי רבית - one who loans money with interest, a loan shark) or a raiser of pigs (מגדלי חזירין)

7. The plain/peshat reading of the verse is that this isn’t a proper name at all, but simply means “father of”: “Ashhur, the father of (avi) Tekoa.” See my introduction, where I cite the verse.

From a linguistics perspective, "avi" (אֲבִי) in this context is a construct form (known in Hebrew grammar as smikhut, סמיכות) of the relational noun "av" (אָב, “father”).

8. אביו שבשמים - literally: “his Father in Heaven”.

As above, in not joining in on the slander of the Spies.

9. Naarah, נערה - i.e. youthful, healthy, and beautiful.

10. צהרים.

On tzohar as referring to brightness, see my previous note, in reference to the crystal in Noah's ark.

11. I.e. she was so attractive that men, sexually aroused by her appearance, would bring gifts to their own wives in the hope of enticing them into agreeing to marital sex.

For additional examples of named women in the Talmud described as having a similarly sexually provocative effect on men, see my Appendix 3 – Women Identified in the Talmud for Their Provocative Sexual Allure.

12. From a part of our sugya that I didn’t quote in the main text, Sotah.11b.23 (=Temurah.16a.12):

״וכלב בן חצרון

הוליד

1. את עזובה אשה

2. ואת יריעות

ואלה בניה:

1. ישר

2. ושובב

3. וארדון״.

בן חצרון?!

בן יפנה הוא!

בן שפנה מעצת מרגלים.

The Gemara discusses the family of Caleb: In Chronicles it says:

“And Caleb, the son of Hezron,

begot children

1. of Azubah his wife,

2. and of Jerioth,

and these were her sons:

1. Jesher,

2. and Shobab,

3. and Ardon” (I Chronicles 2:18).

The Gemara asks: Was Caleb actually the son of Hezron?!

Wasn’t he the son of Jephunneh, as the verse states in Numbers 13:6?

The Gemara answers: He was the son of Hezron, but he is called “son of Jephunneh” as an appellation indicating that he was a son who turned away [sheppana] from the counsel of the spies.

13. Compare the Talmud’s homiletical reading of the verses in Chronicles about Othniel and Achsah in Temurah.16a.9-16. Parts of that sugya parallel our sugya here. I plan to discuss that sugya in a later piece.

14. The passage is quoted in my piece here, section “The Tale of Rava and the Renowned Femme Fatale Homa“; this is a rephrase of my summary there.

15. ביודעה ובמכירה.

I cite this section in a previous piece of mine as well.